Education Foundation I

EF150UY
By: Mr. Sakaria-Lyagwana Iyambo
What is education foundation
• Education Foundation major is to prepare future professionals
in education who are critical thinkers, well-informed about
theory and practice, and who possess the knowledge and skills
that will enable them to be change agents in economically,
racially culturally, and linguistically diverse communities.
Why Education Foundation?
 It enables teachers in training to know what type of education we
had and the purpose it served in the past;
 It gives teachers in training the opportunity of knowing our past
mistakes in our education with the view to making necessary
amends;
 It also gives teachers in training a solid foundation to plan for our
present and future educational development;
 History of education guides teachers in training to proffer some
positive solution to our present day educational problems;
Purpose of Education foundation continue
 It helps teachers in training to understand some major trends and developments in our
educational system;
 It helps teachers in training to formulate and implement better philosophies of
education;
 History of education is a good academic exercise to improve teachers in training
knowledge;
 It widens the scope and knowledge of the teacher and makes him more comfortable and
competent in his class;
 Knowledge of history of education can help teachers in training to be competent in
handling any political appointment on education, nationally or internationally.
Definition of education
• the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge,
developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally
of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.
• the act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge
or skills, as for a profession.
• Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values
and accumulated knowledge of a society
• Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture,
molding their behavior in the ways of adulthood, and directing
them toward their eventual role in society.
Definition of teaching and learning
• Teaching can be defined as engagement with learners to enable their
understanding and application of knowledge, concepts and processes.
It includes design, content selection, delivery, assessment and
reflection
• Learning can be defined as the activity or process of gaining
knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being taught, or
experiencing something (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Learning is
about what students do, not about what we as teachers do.
Forms of Education
We can divide education into three main types:
• Formal Education
• Informal Education
• Non-formal Education
Informal Education
• This is the type of education wherein a parent is teaching a child
things that are beyond academics like preparing a meal or riding a
bicycle.
• It is an independent form of study with no definite syllabus
• It is not preplanned and does not have a proper timetable
• It is an experience that is gained through practice. It does not require a
fee payment all the time.
• It is a lifelong process in a natural way
• There are no certificates or degrees involved
Formal Education
• This is also known as formal learning which usually takes place within
the premises of the school. It refers to the basic academic knowledge
that a child learns in a formal manner.
• It follows a particular structure of delivery
• It is highly planned and deliberate
• It is chronological and systematic
• There is a regular fee that is required to be paid
• Its demand is highly qualified experts
• It is subject-oriented and time-bound
Non-Formal Education
• It refers to adult basic education, adult literacy education, or skill
development.
• It is planned but takes place apart from the academic education
provided by the school education system.
• It is highly flexible and adjustable.
• There is generally no age limit to gain this type of education.
• It may or may not involve certificates or fees.
• It can be either part-time or full-time or as a profession.
• It includes both theoretical and practical education.
guides your
atyou teach, how y profes
Philosophies of education
how you relate to
•

•
•
Your educational philosophy consists of what you believe
in about education
The set of principles that guides your professional action.
Your beliefs and your own philosophy of education will

leagues, and how

influence all your activities in the classroom from how
you teach, what you teach, how you manage your
classroom, how you relate to students, parents, and
colleagues, and how you conduct your professional life
 1. Essentialism
• Essentialism tries to instill all learners with the most basic knowledge,
skills, and character development.
• Essentialists believe that learners should be taught to be a model
citizen.
• Essentialists believe that teachers should teach traditional moral values
and virtues.
• Essentialists believe in mastery learning.
• Essentialism requires that learners master the skills required before
moving on to more difficult material in another grade.
Purpose of Schooling
• Prepare learners to be productive, contributing members of society.
• For essentialist, the aim of education is to teach the young the
essentials they need to live well in the modern world.
• Essentialists teach the basic subjects.
Teacher’s Role
• The teacher teaches discipline and hard work.
• The teacher is an expert of content knowledge.
• Teaches essential knowledge.
• Maintains task-oriented focus.
• The teacher is accountable for student learning.
• Teach the basic subjects .
• Essentialists believe that these subjects should be taught thoroughly.
Teaching Strategies

• Use proven instructional strategies

• Lecture
• Memorization (rote learning)
• Teacher and subject centered
• Mastery learning
Role of the learner
• Learners should be passive and be ready to learn what the teacher
presents to them.
• Learners should listen and learn.
• Learners is to sit still and take in what the teacher is teaching.
(Think about the implications on teaching and learning)
2. Progressivism
• Progressivism is a theory of education that is concerned with
“learning by doing” and purports(claims to) that children learn best
when pursuing their own interests and satisfying their own needs.
• Progressivists believe that people learn best from what they consider
most relevant to their lives.
• Progressivists center curriculum on their needs, experiences, interest
and abilities of student.
• Provoke curiosity in students.
Purpose of schooling

• Active rather than passive learning.

• The whole focus is student.
• To develop the curriculum according to the personal experiences,
interests and needs of the students.
• It should be relevant to the students in order for hem to learn
Roles of the teacher
• The teacher has to meet the needs of pupil as good human being.
• As a facilitator or guide.
• Determine student interest.
• Stimulate direct learning process. The teacher, who is vital in
education process and having richer, superior experience and can
analyze the present situation.
• Teacher will act as a stage setter, guide and coordinator but he is not
total authority, just he guides the situation.
Roles of the learners in Progressivism
philosophy
• First and foremost, the role of the learners in a progressive classroom
is to be an active learner, as opposed to a passive recipient of
information.
• Progressive classrooms provide learners with a variety of activities
that promote learning through investigation and experimentation.
• It is the learner's hands-on discoveries.
• The learner must ask questions and actively use problem solving skills
to solve problems.
• The learner is then expected to apply what they have learned to their
own experiences through physical and cultural contexts.
Roles of the learners in Progressivism
philosophy
Teaching methods in progressivism
philosophy
• Project method- active participation of the pupils in learning.
• Socialized method- to bring all the individual into a group system of
interaction.
• Demonstration
• Group work
• Role play
• Debates
• Inquiry
• Discussion
• Participation in the activities.
Social Reconstructionism

• Assert that schools , teachers and learners should lead in addressing

social problems and improve society.
• It is a learner-centered and focuses its content critique and political
action.
• It focuses on student experience and taking social action on real
problems e.g. violence, hunger, inflation and inequality.
Purpose of schooling
• School should teach learners to dream about what might be rather
than for what is.
• Learners are encouraged to be ‘Change agent’’ by challenging the
norms and seeking to make a society a better place for everyone.
• Learners are asked to look at inequalities in society and their ways to
address those inequalities by taking action.
Roles of the teacher
• Spend less time lecturing and more time allowing students to work in
cooperative groups.
• Facilitate instruction, guiding learners in the direction they need to go
but never mandating the direction students should take.
• Encourage students to form their own opinion based on what they
think and what their research has told them not what they are told to
think by the teacher.
Roles of the learner
• Learners are called upon to be change agents.
• Learners should initiate change by first identifying inequalities in the
society.
• They then work together with their peers to research and solve
problems to address inequalities.
• They should be active.
Constructivism theory
• The theory suggests that human beings construct knowledge and
opinions through their experience.
• This theory focuses on hands-on learning or activity based teaching
and learning during which students develop their own frames of
thoughts.
• In this theory, students concerns and interests are valued.
• Learning is interactive, building on what students know already.
• During this theory, teachers need to have dialogues with their
learners.
Behaviourism philosophy
• This theory defines learning as nothing more than acquisition of new
behaviour based on environmental condition.
• Children learn from the behaviours of others, that can be positive and
negative.
• Teachers need to manipulate the environment to modify the learners'
behaviours.
• In this philosophy, learners consider other as their roles models.
• Peer pressure is also common in this philosophy
Perennialism philosophy
• It is an education or al theory that focuses on enduring the principles
of knowledge.
• In this philosophy knowledge is considered to be permanent or with
little changes
• Teachers are consistent in their teaching, using the same
methodology and tools to deliver the lesson.
• The focus is to teach ideas that everlasting,
• To seek enduring which are consistent not changing
• Teaching these unchanging principles is critical in perennialism
Paulo Freire (1921-1997)-Banking
education
• In this form of education, it is the job of the teacher to deposit in the
mind of the learners, considered to be empty and ignorant, bits of
information or knowledge, much like we deposit money in an empty
account.
• The teachers know everything and students know nothing.
• The teacher teaches and students are taught.
• The teacher thinks and learners are thought about.
• The teacher talks and the learners listen.
• The teacher disciplines and learners are disciplined
Implications of banking education
• Banking education removes the critical ability of learning.
• Learners are forced to accept all information from the learners.
• Lack of critical thinking.
• Lack of creativity
A problem posing method
• In this model, the teacher and learners discuss and analyse
experiences, feelings and knowledge of the world together.
• The learners are subjects, not objects of the learning process .
• The educator and learners are equal participants in the learning
process.
• Both teachers and learners are producers of the subject knowledge.
• The learning process is developed by continuous dialogue between
the teacher and learners.
Implications of problem posing method
• Learners are conscious and capable.
• Learning take place through problem –solving
• Learning becomes practical
• Teachers and learners are co-investigators, explorers etc.
• The teacher learns from the students.
• Students learn by actively discovering and examining rather than
passively absorbing information
John Dewey( 1859-1952) and his
philosophy of education
• Dewey philosophy focused his concept of education on ‘Learning by
doing or hands on learning”
• That means to learn not only by the theory but also by the practice.
• Dewey thought that people learn the best through experience.
• Dewey stressed the importance of education in school not only as a
place to gain content knowledge but also a place to learn how to live.
• He believed that learners should be actively involved in the real-life
tasks and challenges (Neill, 2005).
• He also rejected curriculum - view of education rather than student-
centered education
Roles of the teacher
• The teacher’s role should be of that facilitator
• The teacher guide and direct the students on the subject content
• Create a conducive environment that promote effective teaching and
learning processes.
• Learners 'past experience should be taken into account the teaching
and learning process.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
philosophy of education
He based his philosophy on the following teaching methods:
• Learning by doing- the child should take part in various activities and
learn in a natural way.
• Direct experience- knowledge acquired through books in second
hand and easily forgotten but knowledge acquired acquired through
various experience is permanent.
• Method of individual instruction- Teacher should properly recognize
in the individually of the child and placed emphasized individual
instructions.
Roles of the teacher
• The teacher should provide suitable opportunities for effective
teaching and learning process to take place.
• The teacher should protect the child from repression mental conflict
and mental disorders for all kinds.
Educational psychology
• The word psychology is derived from two Greek words, “Psyche “ and
logos. Psyche means “soul” and logos mean science.
• It is a science of soul, science of mind, science of consciousness and
science of behaviors
• Psychology can also be defined as the study of human behaviour and
human relationship.
What is educational psychology?
• Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the
findings of psychology are applied in the field of education.
• It is a scientific study of human behaviours in educational setting.
• Simply put, educational psychology deals the behaviours of human
beings in educational situations.
Nature of educational psychology
We can summarize the nature of educational psychology in the
following ways:
1. Educational psychology is a science- branch of study concerned
with observation of facts and establishment of verified general laws.
It has its objectives of understanding, explaining , predict and
control facts.
Educational psychology aims at understanding, predicting and
controlling human behaviours
NB: Do not just jump to the conclusion as a teacher
2. Educational psychology is a natural
science
• An educational psychologist conducts his investigations, gather data
and reach his conclusions in exactly the same manner as scientist or
biologist.
• Do not conclude cases as teachers without proper investigations and
gathering as much information as you can.
• Think about cases that you may experience in the classroom such as
absenteeism, school drop out, a child sleeping in the classroom. How
do you go about attending to those cases?
 3.Educational psychology is a social
science
• Like sociologists, economists or political scientist, the educational
psychologist studies human beings and their sociability
• As a teacher, think about learners that that withdraw themselves
from the rest of the class, learners that do not socialize with others,
learners that used to be active and all the sudden they become
inactive
• Your innervation is needed as a teacher to help such learner
4. Educational psychology is a positive
science
• Normative science like logic or ethics deals with facts as they ought to
be.
• Positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate.
• Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviours as it is not as it
ought to be
5. Educational psychology is an applied
science
• It is the application of psychologists principles in the field of
education.
• By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to
study the behaviours and experience of the learners.
• Examples of techniques that you can apply to your learners are
Counselling, learning support etc.
6. Educational psychology is a developing
and growing science
• It concerned with new and ever new researches. As research
accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight in into the
child’s nature and behaviours.
Scope of educational psychology
• The learner- Educational psychology is knitted around the learner.
Therefore there is a need to know your learners and the techniques of
knowing them very well.
• The teacher- Know thyself as a teacher, your personality traits,
interest, strengths and weaknesses as well as aptitudes.
• Human behaviours
• Growth and development
• Heredity and environment
• Individual differences, learning processes etc.
The major branches of psychology
• Abnormal psychology-is the area that looks at psychopathology and
abnormal behaviours. Mental health professionals help assess,
diagnose and treat a wide varieties of psychological disorders such as
anxiety and depression.
• Behavioural psychology- is a theory of learning based on the ideas
that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning.
• Biopsychology- It focuses on how the brain neurons and nervous
system influence thoughts, feelings and behaviours. E.g. How brain
injuries and diseases influence our behaviours.
The major branches of psychology
• Clinical psychology- is the branch of psychology concerned with
assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behaviours
and psychiatric disorder.
• Cognitive psychology- It focuses on internal mental states such as
motivation, emotion, decision making and problem solving.
• Comparative psychology- concerned with the study of animal
behaviours that can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of
human psychology.
• Counselling psychology- Concerned treating clients experiencing
mental distress and a wide variety of psychological symptoms.
Branches of psychology
• Cross-cultural psychology- Is the branch of psychology that looks at
how cultural factors influences human behaviours.
• Developmental psychology- focuses on how people change and grow
throughout the entire lifespan.
• Industrial-organizational psychology- Is a branch that applies
psychological principles to research on workplace issues such as
productivity and behaviours.
• Personality psychology- is the branch of psychology that focuses on
the study of the thought patterns, feelings and behaviours that make
each individual unique.
Branch of psychology continues
• Social psychology- Seeks to explain and understand social behaviours
and look at diverse topics including group behaviours and social
interactions.
• Sports psychology- is a study of how psychology influence sport,
athletics performance, exercise and physical activity.
Major perspectives of educational
psychology

1. The development perspective

• To provide with more learning opportunities, educators must
understand how young people view the world at different ages.
• Educational psychologists can better understand what children are
capable of at each point along the way.
• Children at different stages of development need different types of
instruction
2. Cognitive perspective
• It supports the idea that students learn what they want to learn and
that motivation is one of the main elements of their success.
• Cognitive psychology aims to understand how people think, learn,
remember and process information.
• The basic premise is that people use their experience as they can
perceive their surroundings.
3. The Behavioural perspective
• This theory proposes that all human behaviours is based on
conditioning.
• This perspective suggests that all behaviours are learned through
conditioning.
• According to the behavioral perspective, everything we do is learned
through experience at some points in our lives.
• For example, teachers reward students when they give correct
answers in the classroom, come on time etc.
4. Constructivist approach
• The constructivism approach is a learning theory that emphasizes
how knowledge is created based on individual experiences,
interpretations and meanings.
• A constructivist approach to education believes that students learn
best when they are actively involved and when their thoughts,
feelings and actions are acknowledged as contributing to the learning
process.
5. Experiential perspective
• The experiential perspective is similar to constructivist and cognitive
perspective because it takes into the account the learner’s
experiences, thoughts and feelings about what is being taught.
• The perspective recognizes that each individual has different and
unique experiences, knowledge and interest in certain topics.
Stages of cognitive development- Jean
Piaget
• Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
The sensorimotor stage
• Know the world through movements and sensations
• Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking and listening.
• Learn that things continue to exist even when they can not be seen
• Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects
around them
The preoperational stages
• Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
• Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective
of others.
• Getting better with language and thinking but still tend to think in
very concrete terms
The concrete operational stage
• Begin to think logically about concrete events
• Begins to understand the concept of conversation
• Thinking become more logical and organized
• Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to
a general principle.
Formal operational stage

• Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problem.

• Begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
• Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
a specific information.
Focus on Lev Vygotsky VS Jean Piaget
(Comparison)
• Vygotsky acknowledged the roles that curiosity and active
involvement play in learning, but placed greater emphasis on the
society and culture.
• Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within while
Vygotsky believed that external factors( such as culture) and people
( such as parents, caregivers and peers) play a more significant role.
• Much of Piaget’s interest in the cognitive development of children
was inspired by his/her observations of his/her own nephew.
Why teachers need to study educational
psychology?
• It helps the teachers to get to know his/her potential to teach and
abilities of the learners.
• It assists the teachers in the identifying the learning process
• It helps teachers to assess each student and to know where he stands.
• It helps the teacher to adjust their methods of teaching.
• It helps the teacher to solve the learning problems of each learner
• It helps the teacher to motivate the students to learn
• It helps the teachers to identify learners problems with the aim of
helping them.
Growth and Development
Defining ‘Growth’ and ‘Development’
Growth Development
• Changes in human weight, • A continuous process of changes
height and structure through which task managing
(physiological and structural abilities of the individual are
changes) polished resulting in experiences
• Disappearance of old features and learning.
and acquisition of new ones • Progressive series of changes that
occur in an orderly, predictable
pattern as a result of maturation
and experience
 Growth Development
• Quantitative change • Qualitative changes that cannot
It’s possible to measure how be measured:
tall (height) a child has Not possible to measure the
grown child's increased ability to
Observable & Measurable adjust in groups and make
friends
• Cellular multiplication
• Organisation of all the parts
• Does not continue throughout which growth has produced
life
• Continue throughout life-span
• Growth is an aspect of
development • Integrated whole which growth
is a part
 Growth Development
• Under natural principles • Under experiences and
observations of an
• Various parts of parts of the
individual
body become larger due to
growth • An organisation in functions
of various parts of the body
• Increase in height, weight, is observed due to
structure is regarded as development
growth • Intelligence, social
understanding, expertise in
language and utilisation of
educational opportunities.
 Factors Affecting Development
1. HEREDITY
• Life begins with the fusion of the egg from the mother and the sperm from the
father.
• Both the egg and the sperm contain thread like structures called
chromosomes, on which very small particles called genes are present.
• These genes contain information such as colour of eyes and hair, facial
features, height, colour of skin, etc., which is passed on from parents to
children.
• Nothing can be done to change these characteristics.
• Apart from physical characteristics, heredity also decides the potential a child
has in various fields.
For example, the level of intelligence, the aptitude to sing, to play a sport,
etc, are all decided by your genes.
 Factors Affecting Development
2. ENVIRONMENT
• All that is around you constitute your environment.
• Your parents, siblings and other people, your personal
belongings, toys, etc, all are a part of your environment.
• Climate, food, facilities to grow and develop also constitute
your environment.
• Within environment also there are certain factors that
influence development.
 Environment
Factors influencing the health of the child
• If the child is getting good quantity of nutritious food to
eat, is protected from diseases, has developed well
during the prenatal period, then her chance of
developing to her potential are high.
Opportunities to learn
• If the child is allowed to explore the environment, given
opportunities to participate in varied activities and play
with toys, has people in the environment who actively
interact with her, then she will learn far more than
otherwise.
 Environment…
Child rearing practices
• Child rearing can broadly be understood as how we bring up
the child i.e., how we deal with the child (discipline, facilities,
opportunities etc.) and what is expected from the child
(obedience, independence etc).
• It is determined by our cultural values (for example in an
Indian society there is more focus on wanting the child to
obey the family than in the western society.)
• It is also determined by our personal values (for example a
parent may believe that physical punishment is good for the
child and therefore many beat their children often.)
There are three basic types of child rearing practices
• Autocratic
Where child is only supposed to do what the parent says
• Democratic
Where the parent is a guide, but the child is also allowed a
say in her activities
• Permissive
Where the parent allows the child to do whatever he/she
wants to do.
 Environment…
Space to grow
• Space here means not only physical area but also
access to resources.
• For example if there are too many children in the
house then the kind of food, attention, facilities,
area to play, etc, will all be affected.
 Interaction of Heredity and Environment
• A child is a product of her heredity and environment.
• The contribution of both is important.
• Characteristics provided by heredity can develop only
because the environment provides whatever they require.
• A child has the ability to speak but if nobody talks to her she
cannot develop her speech and language.
• At the same time if the child has some deficiency, no matter
how much you speak to her he/she will not talk.
• Hence, for optimum development of an individual, both
heredity and environment are essential.
 Types of Development
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• By now you are familiar with quite a few physical changes
which occur in a baby as h/she grows.
• Changes in height, weight, strength, etc., of the baby and of
every part of her body are referred to as physical growth.
• And if you remember, the ability to stand, run, jump, balance,
on one leg and so on, are all examples of PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT.
 Types of Development…
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• When a baby is born, it has no interest in the people around it.
• It is happy and satisfied, so long as it is fed and kept comfortable.
• Gradually she learns to recognize her mother and the other members of the
family.
• As he/she grows older, she starts noticing other children around her and
wants to play with them.
• She goes to school, she meets and interacts with the other children of her age
and with the teachers.
• She has an effect on these people and is affected by them in some way or the
other.
• This kind of development, i.e. to notice others, is known as SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT.
 Types of Development…
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• You must have seen a young child stamp her foot and cry when
she is not allowed to go out and play.
• You must have also seen children hiding when they are scared,
hug and kiss the mother because she has made ‘cup cakes’ for
them.
• These are expressions of feelings and we call them emotions.
• The expression of emotions also changes with age.
• As children grow older they learn to control their emotions and
these changes are called EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
 Types of Development…
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• When you show 6 months old a new toy he/she gets excited,
when you hide a toy in front of a one year old, she tries to
find it.
• All this involves cognition i.e., processes involved in thinking,
perceiving, memorizing, and understanding.
• Following instructions, exploring the environment, building
with blocks, playing with toys, imitating behaviours, asking
questions and wanting answers are signs of COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT which are visible in children as they grow.
 Types of Development…
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• A small baby does not know what is right and what is
wrong.
• But as he/she grows, he/she learns the difference
between right and wrong.
• The ability to know right from wrong, about various
positive and negative values, etc., is termed MORAL
DEVELOPMENT.
 Types of Development…
• LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• Language development means a child’s ability to use language to
express self and understand others.
• It is not there in the beginning but develops gradually.
• Observe a small baby. What happens when you talk to him/her?
He/She will make funny noises which you will not be able to
understand.
• As the baby grows, she starts speaking simple words and then simple
sentences and gradually more complex sentences.
• The study of the growth and development of language in a child is
called LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT.
 Conclusion
• Many of the afore-mentioned developments are
occurring at the same time.
• This means that when a child is growing
physically he/she is also developing socially,
emotionally, cognitively and doing equally well in
learning language.
• It is never that one development finishes and
then another starts.
 Educational implications

•What is the role of the

teacher/school/education in enhancing
development in learners?

Let’s TALK
Creativity
• Creativity, the ability to make or otherwise bring into existence
something new, whether a new solution to a problem or a new
method.
• Creativity is the process of bringing something new into being.
Creativity requires passion and commitment. It brings to our
awareness what was previously hidden and points to new life.
• Both teachers and learners need to be creative
Characteristics of creative people
1. Curious
•Creative people enjoy learning new things, so their free time may
include reading books or watching videos about topics they find
interesting. They often find it exciting or satisfying to take on the task of
understanding concepts with which they do not already have familiarity.
Creative people may seek opportunities to learn new skills for personal
reasons or to perform better.
Characteristics continue
2. Playful
•Creative people are willing to play with various ideas until they find the
right one. The sense of playfulness means that they have fun with this
process, rather than taking it too seriously. Sometimes the best ideas can
develop through accidents or unintentionally.

3. Open-minded
An open-minded person is willing to hear and try new ideas. When
collaborating with others, creative people want to hear all the possibilities
and explore them further
Characteristics continue
4. Flexible
Similar to open-mindedness, creative people often have a strong sense
of flexibility. This trait supports their willingness to try new ideas and
experiences
5. Independent
• Working independently allows creative people to embrace their
personal freedom. They can make their own decisions on how to do
things, without instruction or demands from others.
Characteristics continue
6. Risk-taking
• Creative people are willing to take on the risks associated with trying
new ideas. They do not know if a concept is a bad one until it is tested
or examined—so all ideas pose the potential for solutions
7.Intuitive
• An intuitive person makes decisions based on feelings—creative
people may tap into this ability more than other people. They trust in
themselves to follow their hearts, rather than feeling restricted by more
logical demands
Characteristics continues
8. Ambitious
• Creative people often have an awareness of how much effort goes into
their work. They understand that the perfect solution does not always
come easily, so they must put in the work toward achieving it
9. Energetic
• Creative people may often be energetic—this does not mean they
appear hyperactive, but they put a lot of energy into their work. They
often feel passionate about tasks and show their enthusiasm when
performing them.
Creativity continues
11. Objective
•Creative people often feel passionate about what they do, but they also
understand the need to remain objective. While they strive to create the
best work possible, they realize they cannot reach that goal right away.
It often takes continued practice and editing.
Why is it important for students to be creative
• Learning requires creativity since it provides learners a
favorable impact on their education and makes it enjoyable.
People can address challenges in their daily lives and increase
their productivity through creativity.
• Creativity aids in the development of practical thinking
abilities, which is one of the important results of a solid
education.
• As people learn more quickly while they are younger, schools
are the best place to foster creative thinking and imagination,
which is the foundation of creativity. Thus, encouraging
students to think creatively can be quite important.
Why creativity?
• Due to students’ ability to pick up new information
fast as they are younger, learning new things is
often easier. Curious minds are the most creative,
curiosity frequently promotes more original
thought.
• Students should cultivate an inventive and curious
mind since creativity aids in the complete growth of
any individual. Hence educational institutes must
develop creativity in students.
How to promote creativity among learners.
• Embrace creativity as part of learning process
• Think of creativity as a skill that your learners need
• Reward learners that give unexpected answers in the
classroom
• Ask more of subjective questions/open ended
questions in the classroom
• You should serve as a role model to your learners
Creativity continues
• Designing learning activities to foster creativity
• Teaching them a variety of skills that can boost
their creativity
• Encourage them to think out of the box
• Provide constructive feedback and assistance
• Allow the space for creativity in your class
• Encourage curiosity
• Allow rooms for mistakes
What are learning styles?
• Information enters your brain through
three methods: sight, hearing, and touch.
The one which you use the most is called
your learning style.
• Visual Learners learn by sight
• Auditory Learners learn by hearing
• Tactile Learners (kinesthetic) learn by
touch
• Reading and writing style- Learners
primarily by reading and writing
Visual Learners
• Prefer to see information such as pictures,
diagrams, cartoons, or demonstrations
• Picture words and concepts that they hear as
images
• Might get easily distracted during a lecture with
no visual aids
• Could become overwhelmed with intense
visuals accompanied by lecture
• Benefit from using charts, maps, notes, and
flash cards when studying
 Auditory Learners
• Can absorb a lecture with little effort
• Prefer to hear information spoken
• May not need detailed notes to learn
• Often avoid eye contact in order to
concentrate
• May read aloud to themselves
• Like background music when they study
Tactile or Kinesthetic Learners

• Prefer touch as their primary mode for taking in

information
• In traditional lecture situations, they should write out
important facts
• Create study sheets connected to vivid examples
• Role-playing might help them learn and
remember important ideas
Learning Styles and Teaching
• Remember to use a variety of learning modalities when planning
lessons.
Teaching Strategies
Visual Learners
Draw pictures to Models Color-coding
represent ideas, Describe in detail
paint Color, lines, and
Games: matching, shapes
puzzles Creative designs
Visual cues to Sculptures
remember Graphic organizers
Have a “being there” Art media
experience Displays
Field trip Posters
Visualization and Charts
imagine Brochures
Graphics Pictures and
Flowcharts illustrations
Videos Cartoons and
Create caricatures
Auditory Learners
• Play word Describe and Research
games for discuss Projects
vocabulary Interviews Quizzes and
Explain ideas Label tests
Tell jokes, Give and follow Logs, journals,
riddles, and directions diaries
limericks Retell Questions and
Trivia games Essays answers
Write Audio
Report - oral recordings
and written Speeches
Explain Debates
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
• Opportunities to Simulate playing
move and handle Dance or mime Field trips
materials Perform Movement routines
Trace and highlight Create, construct, or
Act out concepts and develop
stories role playing Gestures or actions
Models to support learning
Experiments Manipulatives
Write or draw while Inventions
listening Sports participation
Walk while thinking Demonstrating using
Use hands and arms physical movement
for expression Exercises
Imagine Hands-on
themselves in a experiences
situation Simulations / Role-
Read and write learning style
• They prefer to learn information by reading notes, handouts and
textbooks.
• These learners make use of dictionaries and other reference
materials.
• They also benefit by re-writing notes and re-reading notes silently
again and again.
What is your dominant learning style?
• Complete the Learning Styles
Inventory.
• Are you surprised by the results?
• How will this information assist you
with planning instructional activities
for students?
Individual Differences
Definition
• According to Good (1959):
• Individual differences stand for the variations or deviations among
individuals in regard to a single characteristic or a number of
characteristics.
• Individual differences stand for those differences which in their
totality, distinguish one individual from another.
• The differences among individuals, that distinguish or separate
them, from one another and make one as a unique individual in
oneself, may be termed as individual differences.
Types of individual differences
• Physical differences
 Individuals differ in height, weight, skin colour, colour of eyes,
hair, hands size, heads, arms, feet, mouth, nose, length of
waistline, structure, functioning of internal organs, facial
expression, mannerisms of speech and walk and other native or
acquired physical characteristics.
• Mental differences
 People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning
and thinking, power of imagination and creative expression or
concentration span.
 On the basis of these differences, they are usually classified as
idiot, imbecile, moron, border line, normal, very superior and
genius.
Types of individual differences…

• Differences in Psychomotor abilities

 There exist wide differences in motor abilities such
as reacting time, speed of action, steadiness, rate
of muscular moment, manual dexterity and
resistance to fatigue etc.
 It also include the general abilities such as
jumping, running, dancing etc.
Types of individual differences…
• Differences in achievement
 It has been found through achievement tests that individuals
differ in their achievement abilities.
 These differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in
learning mathematics.
 Differences exist in achievement and in knowledge even among
individuals who have almost the same amount of intelligence and
age and have been subjected to equal amount of schooling and
experience.
 These differences are on account of the differences in the various
factors of intelligence and the differences in the various
experiences, interests and educational background.
Types of individual differences…
• Emotional differences
 In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and
amusement and the likes are prominent whereas, in some
negative emotions are more powerful.
 Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions.
 Some are emotionally stable and mature, while others are
emotionally unstable and immature.
 Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular
situation.
 Some are irritable and aggressive and they get angry very quickly.
 There are others who are of peaceful nature and do not get angry
easily.
Types of individual differences…

• Differences in interests
 Factors such as gender, family background level of development,
differences of race and nationality etc., cause differences in
interests.
 Learning depends on interests.
 Variations occur among individuals in relation to the specific
tastes and interests such TV channels, sports etc.
 Some are interested in socialisation or picnics but some feel
happy in solitude.
 Some are interested in social gatherings but others like
meditation.
Types of individual differences…

• Differences in attitudes
 Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people,
objects, institutions and authority.
 Attitude is an important attribute.
 Behaviour depends on attitude such as ideas, persons, object and
environment.
 We may have positive (strong like) or negative attitude ( dislike,
hatred, enmity etc).
Types of individual differences…

• Differences in aptitudes
 People are found to have different aptitudes.
 Some have mechanical aptitude while others have
scholastic, musical, or artistic aptitudes.
 It decides their growth and success.
Types of individual differences…

• Differences in values
 It includes our values such as materialistic, social, moral
or spiritual in nature.
 It depends on philosophy of life, environment and
circumstances.
 It includes economic values, employment values, political
values psychological values.
Types of individual differences…
• Differences in self-concept
 Self-concept reflects the images, considerations or
judgement about one’s abilities and limitations usually
held by an individual not only projecting himself before
others but also for estimating oneself in their own eyes.
 Students must be made to form proper and real concept
about themselves so that they may be helped in their
potential after getting rid of negative feelings that are
detrimental to their progress.
Types of individual differences…
• Differences in learning
 Some people learn more easily and are able to
make use of their learning more comfortably than
others.
 For some, one method of learning or memorisation
is more suitable, while for the others, a different
method suits.
 Types of individual differences…
• Differences on account of gender
McNemar and Terman (1945) discovered the following differences between men and women, on the
basis of some studies:

― Women have greater skill in memory while men have

greater motor ability
― Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in
mathematics and logic
― Women show greater skill in making sensory
distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc., while men
show greater reaction and conscious of size-weight
illusion
 Differences on account of gender
― Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in
physics and chemistry.
― Women are better than men in mirror drawing.
― Faults of speech etc. in men were found to be three times of such
faults in women.
― Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three
times as many colour blind men as there are women.
― Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the
school and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their
play.
― On the other hand boys take interest in stories of bravery, science,
war, scouting, stories of games and sports, stories and games of
occupation and skill.
 Differences on account of gender…

― Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in

sex.
― The physical development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier
than the boys.
― Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier than the
boys.
― After 15, boys start winning the race.
― Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are
brave, hard, choleric (bad-tempered), efficient and competent.
 Causes of Individual Differences

1. Heredity
• One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is
heredity.

• Individuals inherit various physical traits like face with its features, colour
of eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands, colour
blindness, baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like
cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits like intelligence, abstract thinking,
aptitudes and prejudices.

• Now it is a fact that heredity differences result in the quantity and rate of
physical as well as mental development being different and different
individuals.
 Causes of Individual Differences
2. Environment
• Environment significantly influences individual differences.
• Changes in child’s environment are reflected in the changes in his personality.
• Psychologically speaking, a person’s environment consists of sum total of
stimulation which he receives from conception until death.
• Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political,
economic and cultural forces.
• All these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe
that individual differences are caused by both heredity and environment.
• Personality is the outcome of mutual interaction between heredity and
environment.
• Education, training, experience, nourishment and all other stimulations come
from environmental influences.
 Educational Implications of Individual Differences
• In any group there are individuals who deviate from the norms of the
group. Along with the average, the presence of very superior and
extremely challenged is equally possible in a class.
• Every teacher should try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities,
capacities, interest , attributes, aptitudes, and other personality traits of
his learners and in the light of this knowledge should render individual
guidance to children for the maximum utilization of their potentialities.
• It is wrong to expect uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a
particular field from a group of learners on account of their subnormal
intelligence, previous knowledge , back ground, lack of proper interest,
aptitude and attitude etc. some learners lag behind in one or the other
area of achievement.
• All learners cannot be benefited by a particular method of instruction and
a uniform and rigid curriculum.
 Role of schools in fostering Individual Differences
• Proper knowledge of the individual’s potentialities – appropriate personality assessment
should be done to know about the abilities, capabilities, interests, aptitudes and other
personality traits of individual, learners.
• Ability grouping – Based on personality assessment outcomes, the learners in a class or
area of activity can be divided into homogenous groups. Such division can be beneficial in
adjusting teaching and learning to varying individual differences.
• Adjusting curriculum - to meet the requirements of varying individual differences among
learners, the curriculum should be as flexible and differentiated as possible. The
curriculum should provide for a number of diversified areas of learning so that learners
may get an opportunity to learn the areas of their own interests and abilities.
• Adjusting the method of teaching – Each teacher should be free to formulate their own
lesson plans and strategies and adopt teaching and learning procedures which they find
most suited to the particular types of learners they teach.
• Adopting special programmes or methods for individualizing teaching and learning –
schools may adopt special programme or methods of teaching to enable learners to learn
at their own individual rate e.g. Dalton plan (freedom and individual work) or the project-
based methods etc.
Other practical procedures for fostering individual differences

• The size of the class should be as small as possible

• The teacher should keep individualised attention
• The teacher should keep in view of the individual
difference of his/her learners while engaging in class work
• If ability grouping is not possible, special coaching and
guidance programmes should be conducted for both
gifted and the ones with learning difficulties.
The concept of Individual Differences
• The psychology of individual differences is concerned with
the systematic study of intelligence and abilities associated
with personality of the learner, learning styles, needs and
interests of the learner (Joseph, 2017).
• Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s
language, cultural and social behaviour are taken into
account.
• A teacher should be sensitive to individual differences.
• A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the
difference among children and work to maximise the growth
in each child.
Learning theories
1. Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think.
• Mental processes are an important part in understanding how we learn.
• The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by
both internal and external elements.
Learning theory continues
• Cognitive learning theory impacts students because their
understanding of their thought process can help them learn.
• Teachers can give students opportunities to ask questions, to fail, and
think out loud.
• These strategies can help students understand how their thought
process works, and utilize this knowledge to construct better learning
opportunities.
2. Behaviorism Learning Theory

• Behaviorism learning theory is the idea that how a student behaves is

based on their interaction with their environment.
• It suggests that behaviors are influenced and learned from external
forces rather than internal forces
• Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive reinforcement to help
students better learn a concept.
• Students who receive positive reinforcement are more likely to retain
information moving forward, a direct result of the behaviorism theory.
3. Constructivism Learning Theory

• Constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students

actually create their own learning based on their previous experiences.
• Students take what they’re being taught and add it to their previous
knowledge and experiences, creating a reality that’s unique to them.
• This learning theory focuses on learning as an active process, which is
personal and individual for each student
Constructivism learning theory continues
• Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each
student will bring their own past to the classroom every day.
• Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to helping
students create their own learning and understanding.
• They help them create their own process and reality based on their
own past.
4. Humanism Learning Theory

• Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism

directly focuses on the idea of self-actualization.
• Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at
the top of the hierarchy of needs—it’s the brief moments where a
person feels all of their needs are met and that they’re the best possible
version of themselves.
• Everyone is striving for this, and learning environments can either
move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs.
Humanism learning theory continues
• Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get
closer to their self-actualization.
• Educators can help fulfill students’ emotional and physical needs,
giving them a safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and
the support they need to succeed.
• This kind of environment is the most conducive to helping students
learn
5. Connectivism Learning Theory

• Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It

focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form
connections.
• This can be connections with each other or connections with their
roles and obligations in their lives.
• Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence
learning.
Connectivism learning theory continues
• Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classrooms to help students
make connections to things that excite them, helping them learn.
• Teachers can use digital media to make good, positive connections to
learning.
• They can help create connections and relationships with their students
and with their peer groups to help students feel motivated about
learning
6. Experiential Learning Theory

• Experiential learning theory focuses on learning by doing.

• Using this theory, students are encouraged to learn through
experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts
• By creating environments where students can learn and experience at
the same time.
• Teachers offer students the opportunity to immediately apply their
knowledge and get real-world experiences.