Finite Element Method

Elastic Bar Element

Engineer Renato Carvalho|2023

Índice:

1 Elastic Bar Element

2 Exercise

3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem

5 Minimum Potential Energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 2

1 Elastic Bar Element Element that can be subjected to axial forces only
(similar to the spring element)

Elastic Bar Element

• Element that can be subjected to axial

forces only (similar to the spring
element).

• Useful in the analysis of both two- and

three-dimensional frame or truss
structures.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 3

1 Elastic Bar Element Forces should be applied only at the nodes (ends of the
bar) and in the direction of its axis

Formulation of the finite element characteristics of an

elastic bar element is based on the following assumptions:

• The bar is geometrically straight.

• The material obeys Hooke’s law.

• Forces are applied only at the ends of the bar.

• The bar supports axial loading only; bending, torsion, and

shear are not transmitted to the element via the nature of
its connections to other elements.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 4

1 Elastic Bar Element The bar is connected to other structural members via
pins (2-D) or ball-and-socket joints (3-D)

Connection via pins (2D)

Ball-and-socket joint (3D)

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 5

1 Elastic Bar Element Interpolation functions are used to describe the displacement
along the length as a function of the displacement at the nodes

𝑢1 𝑢2

1 2

x 𝑢( 𝑥 )

L
We will use interpolation functions and (also known as shape functions) to evaluate :

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 6

1 Elastic Bar Element Interpolation functions are used to describe the displacement
along the length as a function of the displacement at the nodes

The simplest forms for the interpolation

𝑢 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑁 1 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑢1 + 𝑁 2 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑢2
functions are polynomial forms:

𝑢 ( 𝑥=0 )=𝑢1 𝑢 ( 𝑥= 𝐿 )=𝑢2 𝑁 1 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑎 0 +𝑎 1 𝑥

𝑁 1 ( 0 )=1 𝑁 2 ( 𝑥 )=𝑏 0+ 𝑏1 𝑥

𝑁 1 ( 𝐿 )=0 𝑁 1 ( 0 )=𝑎 0 + 𝑎1 0=1→ 𝑎 0= 1

𝑁 1 ( 𝐿 )=1+ 𝑎1 𝐿=0 → 𝑎 1=− ¿ ¿

𝑁 2 ( 0 )= 0
𝑁 2 ( 0 )=𝑏 0 +𝑏1 0=0 → 𝑏0 =0
𝑁 2 ( 𝐿 )=1
𝑁 2 ( 𝐿 )=𝑏 1 𝐿=1 → 𝑏1=1/ 𝐿
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 7
1 Elastic Bar Element Interpolation functions are used to describe the displacement
along the length as a function of the displacement at the nodes

𝑁 1 ( 𝑥 ) =1− 𝑥/ 𝐿

𝑁 2 ( 𝑥 )=𝑥 / 𝐿

𝑢 ( 𝑥 ) =(1 − 𝑥 / 𝐿) 𝑢1 +( 𝑥 / 𝐿) 𝑢2

We can express this equation in matrix form as:

𝑢 ( 𝑥 ) =[ 𝑁 1 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑁 2 ( 𝑥 ) ]
{ }
𝑢1
𝑢2
= [ 𝑁 ] {𝑢 }

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 8

1 Elastic Bar Element The equivalent spring constant of an elastic bar is the
force needed to displace a unit length

The deflection of an elastic bar of length L and uniform cross-

sectional area A when subjected to axial load P is given by:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

Where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. We can

write this equation using the equivalent spring constant of an
elastic bar as:

𝑃𝐿 𝑃 𝐴𝐸
𝛿= → = =𝑘
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 9

1 Elastic Bar Element Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the
direction of applied force, divided by the initial dimensions of the body

In uniaxial loading, as in the bar element, we need

consider only the normal strain component, defined as:

𝑑𝑢
𝜀𝑥=
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 ( 𝑥 ) =(1 − 𝑥 / 𝐿) 𝑢1 +( 𝑥 / 𝐿) 𝑢2

𝑑𝑢 ( 𝑢 2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥 = ) ( )
= −1 / 𝐿 𝑢1 + 1/ 𝐿 𝑢 2=
𝑑𝑥 𝐿

𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥=
𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 10

1 Elastic Bar Element One of the assumptions used is that the
material obeys Hooke’s law

The axial stress, by Hooke’s law, is then:

𝑢 2 − 𝑢1
𝜎 𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸
𝐿

And the associated axial force is:

𝐴𝐸
𝑃=𝜎 𝑥 𝐴=
𝐿
( 𝑢 2 − 𝑢1 )

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 11

1 Elastic Bar Element The applied forces at the nodes should have opposite
direction, which means opposite signs

𝑢1 𝑢2

𝑓1 𝑓2

1 2

x 𝑢( 𝑥 )

𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑓 1=− ( 𝑢2 −𝑢1 ) 𝑓 2=
𝐿
( 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 12

1 Elastic Bar Element We use matrix notation as a tool to organize systems of
equations. When the system is large, it is very helpful

𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑓 1=−
𝐿
( 𝑢2 −𝑢1 ) 𝑓 2=
𝐿
( 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )

These equations can be expressed in matrix form as:

𝐴𝐸 1
𝐿 −1[ −1
1 ]{ } { }
𝑢1
𝑢2
=
𝑓
𝑓
1

The stiffness matrix for the bar element is given by:

[ 𝑘𝑒 ] = [
𝐴𝐸 1
𝐿 −1
−1
1 ]
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 13
1 Elastic Bar Element The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
order of 2 x 2 and is expressed in local coordinate system

[ 𝑘𝑒 ] = [
𝐴𝐸 1
𝐿 −1
−1
1 ] Attention!

• The element stiffness matrix for the bar element is symmetric.

• It is singular, which means that it can’t be inversed because the
determinant is equal to zero.
• It is of order 2 x 2 in correspondence with two nodal displacements or
degrees of freedom.
• It is expressed in element (local) coordinate system.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 14

Índice:

1 Elastic Bar Element

2 Exercise

3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem

5 Minimum Potential Energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 15

2 Exercise Element that can be subjected to axial forces only
(similar to the spring element)

The figure below depicts a tapered elastic bar subjected to an applied tensile load P at one end and attached to a
fixed support at the other end. The cross-sectional area varies linearly from at the fixed support at to at . Calculate
the displacement of the end of the bar (a) by modeling the bar as a single element having cross-sectional area equal
to the area of the actual bar at its midpoint along the length, (b) using two bar elements of equal length and similarly
evaluating the area at the midpoint of each, and (c) using integration to obtain the exact solution.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 16

2 Exercise The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
order of 2 x 2 and is expressed in local coordinate system

Applying the constraint condition , we find

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 17

2 Exercise The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
order of 2 x 2 and is expressed in local coordinate system

4𝐿 [
3 𝐴0 𝐸 1
−1
−1
1 ]{ } { }
𝑈1
=
𝐹1
3 𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿 (
𝑈 1+ −
3 𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿
𝑈 2 =𝐹 1 )
𝑈2 𝑃

3 𝐴0 𝐸 3 𝐴0 𝐸
− 𝑈1+ 𝑈 2=𝑃
4𝐿 4𝐿

[ ]
3 𝐴0 𝐸 3 𝐴0 𝐸
− 3 𝐴0 𝐸 3 𝐴0 𝐸

−
4𝐿
3 𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿
3 𝐴0 𝐸 { }{ }
𝑈1
𝑈2
𝐹
= 1
𝑃
−
4𝐿
0+
4𝐿
𝑈 2=𝑃

4𝐿 4𝐿
𝑃 4 𝑃𝐿
𝑈 2= =
3 𝐴0 𝐸 3 𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 18

2 Exercise The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
order of 2 x 2 and is expressed in local coordinate system

1
(b)

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2 Exercise We should apply boundary conditions to
prevent rigid body motion

Solving this system of two equations, we find 3

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 20

2 Exercise We should perform hand calculations of expected
results to compare with the FEA results

𝐿
𝑑𝑢
→ 𝜀 𝑥= → 𝑑𝑢=𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝛿=∫ 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 21

2 Exercise The displacement results are very similar compared to
the exact solution

One Element:

Two Elements:

Exact:

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2 Exercise The stress results are not well represented by the FEA results.
We should use more elements to represent it properly

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 23

Índice:

1 Elastic Bar Element

2 Exercise

3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem

5 Minimum Potential Energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 24

3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

𝐿 𝑭

𝑭
𝜹𝟎

𝛿0 𝛿0
1
𝑊 =∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑 𝛿=∫ 𝑘 𝛿 𝑑 𝛿 = 𝑘 𝛿0=𝑈 𝑒
2

0 0
2

Elastic potential energy (strain energy)

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 25
3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential energy,
which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

When external forces are applied to a body, in the case of an elastic body constrained to
prevent motion, the mechanical work done by those forces is stored in the body as elastic
potential energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy. From elementary
statics, the mechanical work performed by a force as its point of application moves along a
path from position 1 to position 2 is defined as

2
𝑊 =∫ ⃗
𝐹 . 𝑑 𝑟⃗
1

𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 𝑟⃗ =dx ⃗𝑖+d 𝑦 ⃗𝑗+ d 𝑧 𝑘

⃗

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2

𝐼𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 →𝑊 =∫ 𝐹 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 +∫ 𝐹 𝑦 . 𝑑𝑦 +∫ 𝐹 𝑧 . 𝑑𝑧
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 26

3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

Strain energy for an axially loaded elastic bar

fixed at one end can immediately be written as

1 2 1 𝐴𝐸 2
𝛿 𝑈 𝑒= 𝑘 𝛿 = 𝛿
2 2 𝐿

𝐹𝐿 𝐹 𝐴𝐸
𝛿= → = =𝑘
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 27

3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

However, for a more general purpose, this result is converted to a

different form (applicable to a bar element only) as follows:

( ) ( )( )
2
1 2 1 𝐴𝐸 𝑃𝐿 1 𝑃 𝑃 1
𝑈 𝑒= 𝑘 𝛿 = = 𝐴𝐿= 𝜎𝜀 𝑉
2 2 𝐿 𝐴𝐸 2 𝐴 𝐴𝐸 2

𝟏
𝑼 𝒆= 𝝈𝜺 𝑽
𝟐

Strain Energy Total volume of

per Unit volume deformed material

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 28

Índice:

1 Elastic Bar Element

2 Exercise

3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem

5 Minimum Potential Energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 29

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the stiffness
matrix of a whole system in a practical manner

𝑭𝒏
Castigliano’s First Theorem

For an elastic system in equilibrium, 𝑭𝟏

the partial derivative of total strain
energy with respect to deflection at a
point is equal to the applied force in
the direction of the deflection at that
point. 𝑭𝟑

𝑭𝟐

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 30

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

𝑭𝒊

Consider an elastic body subjected to N forces for

which the total strain energy is expressed as

𝑁 𝛿𝑖
𝑈 𝑒=𝑊 =∑ ∫ 𝐹 𝑖 𝑑 𝛿𝑖
𝑖=1 0

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 31

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

This point is made to deflect an 𝑭 𝒊+ ∆ 𝑭 𝒊

infinitesimal amount by an
incremental infinitesimal force

The change in strain energy is:

∆ 𝛿𝑖

∆ 𝑈 𝑒 =∆ 𝑊 =𝐹 𝑖 ∆ 𝛿𝑖 + ∫ ∆ 𝐹 𝑖 𝑑 𝛿𝑖
0

Fixed

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 32

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

𝐹1 𝐹2

𝐹3 𝐹4

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹1 𝐹2
∆ 𝛿4 Fixed

Free

𝐹3 𝐹 4+ ∆ 𝐹 4 𝐹3 𝐹4
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 33
4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point

The change in strain energy is:

∆ 𝛿𝑖

∆ 𝑈 𝑒 =∆ 𝑊 =𝐹 𝑖 ∆ 𝛿𝑖 + ∫ ∆ 𝐹 𝑖 𝑑 𝛿𝑖
0
The integral term involves the product of
infinitesimal quantities and can be neglected

∆ 𝑈𝑒
∆ 𝑈 𝑒 =𝐹 𝑖 ∆ 𝛿𝑖 → 𝐹 𝑖 =
∆ 𝛿𝑖

Which in the limit as approaches zero becomes

𝜕𝑈𝑒
𝐹 𝑖=
𝜕 𝛿𝑖
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 34
4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point

Strain of the bar element can be calculated as:

𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥=
𝐿

The axial stress, by Hooke’s law, is then:

𝑢 2 − 𝑢1
𝜎 𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸
𝐿

Strain energy for the bar element is given by

( ) 𝐴𝐿
2
1 1 𝑢2 −𝑢1
𝑈 𝑒= 𝜎 𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑉 = 𝐸
2 2 𝐿
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 35
4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point

( ) 𝐴𝐿
2
1 1 𝑢2 −𝑢1
𝑈 𝑒= 𝜎 𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑉 = 𝐸
2 2 𝐿

Applying Castigliano’s theorem with respect to each displacement yields

𝜕𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝐸
= 𝑓 1=− ( 𝑢 2 −𝑢 1 )
𝜕 𝑢1 𝐿

𝜕𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝐸
= 𝑓 2= ( 𝑢 2 −𝑢 1)
𝜕 𝑢2 𝐿

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 36

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point

Exercise
a) Apply Castigliano’s first theorem to the system of four spring elements depicted in the
figure below to obtain the system stiffness matrix. The vertical members at nodes 2 and 3
are to be considered rigid.
b) Solve for the displacements and the reaction force at node 1 if

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 37

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 38

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 39

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the
stiffness matrix of a whole system in a practical manner

Which can be written in matrix form as

System stiffness matrix obtained via Castigliano’s theorem

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 40

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the
stiffness matrix of a whole system in a practical manner

𝑈 2=5 , 0 𝑚𝑚 𝑈 3 =9 , 17 𝑚𝑚 𝑈 4 =25 , 83 𝑚𝑚

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 41

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The constraint equation is used to calculate the reaction
forces after we find the active displacements

Constraint equation

4 . 0 − 4 𝑈 2 +0 𝑈 3 + 0 𝑈 4 =𝐹 1

𝐹 1=− 4 𝑈 2 =− 4 . 5=−20 𝑁

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 42

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The sum of all forces must be equal to zero since it is a static
structural analysis where acceleration is equal to zero

𝐹 1=−20 𝑁

∑ 𝐹=0→−20−30+0+50=0 ∴ 𝑂𝑘!
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 43
Índice:

1 Elastic Bar Element

2 Exercise

3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem

5 Minimum Potential Energy

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 44

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Minimum Potential Energy

Of all displacement states of a body or structure, subjected to external loading, that

satisfy the geometric boundary conditions (imposed displacements), the displacement
state that also satisfies the equilibrium equations is such that the total potential
energy is a minimum for stable equilibrium.

Stable Neutral Unstable

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 45
5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Π =𝑈 𝑒 +𝑈 𝐹

Total Potential Energy Strain Energy Potential Energy

of applied loads

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 46

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Π =𝑈 𝑒 +𝑈 𝐹
𝑈 𝐹 =−𝑊

The mechanical work done by a conservative force, is

reversed, and therefore recovered, if the force is released.
Therefore, the mechanical work of a conservative force is
considered to be a loss in potential energy.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 47

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Π =𝑈 𝑒 − 𝑊

Total Potential Energy Strain Energy Mechanical work of

a conservative force

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 48

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

If we have a total potential energy expression that is a

function of, say, N displacements , ; that is,

Π =Π (𝑈 1 ,𝑈 2 , … , 𝑈 𝑁 )
then the total potential energy will be minimized if

𝜕Π
=0 𝑖=1 , … , 𝑁
𝜕 𝑈𝑖
Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 49
5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Exercise
Apply the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy to the system of four spring elements
depicted in the figure below to obtain the system stiffness matrix. The vertical members at
nodes 2 and 3 are to be considered rigid.

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 50

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 51

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 52

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 53

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix

Engineer Renato Carvalho | Page 54

Thank you for your
attention!