The Cell Cycle

Course Instructor
Dr. Mahendra Ram
Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering
Email:
[email protected]

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

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 Background check: What is a Chromosome ?

 Chromosome is an organized (condensed) form of DNA

and associated proteins found in nucleus of cells.

 Transmits the hereditary information into daughter cells.

 In nucleus, genetic material is found in form of thin fibers

called as Chromatin which is made up of long chain of
DNA molecules.

 These DNA molecules are supercoiled (folded) around

Histone proteins.

 During cell division, chromatin is converted into

chromosomes.
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What is a Chromosome ?

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How Chromosomes are formed ?

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Structure of Chromosome (duplicated)
(TTAGGG)

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 Homologues: a pair of chromosome
having same genes, but different
alleles one inherited from mother and
another from father.
 Sister chromatids: same genes, same
alleles.
 Alleles: two or more alternative forms
of a gene that arise by mutation and
are found at the same place on a
chromosome.

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 Microtubules are
made of Tubulin
protein.

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 Key facts about Chromosomes !!

 Total 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human

body cell (total 46 chromosomes). No. of
Eukaryotes chromosomes
 These numbers may vary in Eukaryotes.
 Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are autosomes while Human 46
one pair is the sex chromosome (allosome,
Monkey 42
XY in male and XX in female).
 Two complete sets of chromosomes, one Dogs 78
from each parent: diploid cells (2n) Frog 26
 Only single set of chromosomes (total 23 Potato 48
only): haploid cells (n)
Sun flower 34
 In humans, gametes (reproductive cells) are
haploid cells such as sperm and egg cells. Butterfly 380
 In Eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear Onion 16
whereas in Bacteria it is circular (plasmid).
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• (1-22) pairs of
chromosome:
autosome.

• Autosomes are
homologues.

• 23rd pair of
Chromosome:
sex chromosome

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 The Cell Cycle
 Billions of cells die and are generated daily.

 A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.

 Required during development, growth and repair/maintenance of tissues/organs

or during reproduction.

 Responsible for transfer of life from one cell to other.

 Three major steps are involved: cell growth, DNA replication (synthesis) and cell
division (Mitosis/Meiosis).

 Parent cell divide into daughter cells (2 daughter cells in Mitosis while 4
daughter cells in Meiosis).
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 Cell Cycle (in Eukaryotes)

 The complete cell cycle takes around 12-20 hrs.

 Two main phases:
1. Interphase (preparatory phase)
• Interphase = G1 + S + G2
• Cell prepares itself for division.
• DNA is replicated.
• Organelles are duplicated.
• Cell increases in size.

2. M phase (mitotic phase)

• Cell division takes place (except in heart, muscle and nerve cells).
• M phase = Mitosis + Cytokinesis
• Nucleus divides (Mitosis), Cytoplasm divides (Cytokinesis).
• New daughter cells are formed.
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 Cell Cycle
Note:
• Not always a cell divides.

• When it is not dividing, it

leaves the cycle and enters
into G0 phase which is
called as resting phase
(active but not dividing).
Example: Neurons (nerve
cells)

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 Interphase
 Cell growth and DNA replication takes place.
 Referred as “Preparatory phase”.
 Cells spend most of the time (~ 90%) in interphase.
 Consists of three phases:
1) G1 Phase (Gap 1: 1st growth stage)
• Cellular contents like organelles (excluding chromosomes) are duplicated,
proteins are produced, cells grow in size.
• G1/S check point ensures that everything is ready for DNA replication.
2) S Phase (Synthesis)
• DNA replication takes place and genetic material is duplicated (2 sister
chromatids are formed).
3) G2 Phase (Gap 2: 2nd growth stage)
• Preparation for M phase (cell division or Mitosis).
• Cell continues to grow, centrosome duplicates.
• G2/M check point ensures that everything is ready for cell division. 14
 M Phase (Mitotic phase or Cell division)

 Chromosome separation and cell division occurs to form genetically identical cells.
 Relatively short period of cell cycle.
 Consists of two phases:
1) Mitosis phase (nuclear division)
Made up of four distinct phases:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
2) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
• Cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane divide.
• Formation of two identical daughter cells having exact copies of
chromosomes.

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 Mitosis Cell Division (Karyokinesis : nuclear division)
 Discovered by German scientist Walther Flemming.
 Occurs in somatic cells (diploid) only.
 Set of 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase (known as PMAT).
1) Prophase:
• First stage of cell division.
• Longest phase in Mitosis.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
• Movement of centrosomes (a pair of centrioles:
triplets of microtubules) towards the opposite poles
of the cell.
• Formation of mitotic spindle between centrosomes
using microtubule fibers. 16
 Mitosis (contd.)

2) Metaphase:
• Second phase of Mitosis.
• Lasts only for few minutes.
• Centrosomes are placed at the poles of the cell.
• Chromosomes are aligned at the center of the
cell (at the equator).
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes is
referred as metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers are attached to the chromosomes
at the centromere (kinetochore protein) and
align them.
• Nuclear membrane completely disappears.

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 Mitosis (contd.)

3) Anaphase:
• Third phase of Mitosis.

• Spindle fibers shorten and pull chromosomes

apart towards the opposite poles.

• Sister chromatids separate at the centromere.

• Half of each chromosome (called as

chromatids) moves to the opposite ends of the
cell.

• Cell elongates towards the poles.

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 Mitosis (contd.)

4) Telophase:
• Last phase of Mitosis.

• Reformation of nuclear membrane around

separated chromosomes.

• Chromosomes unfold back into chromatids.

• Spindle fibers disappear.

• Nucleolus reappear.

• Cell continues to elongate.

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 Cytokinesis
 Takes place after telophase. Cleavage furrow in animal cells
 Final stage of cell cycle, different in animals
and plants.
 Cytoplasm divides into two parts.
 Organelles distribute into two parts.
 Cell contract at the center and two new diploid
cells are formed each having one nucleus.
 New cells are identical (clone) to the parent cell
and have same number of chromosomes.
 Size of the daughter cell may vary (may differ
in cellular content but same in nuclear content).

Note: In Prokaryotes, cell division takes place by binary fission (~ 25 min) NOT by Mitosis. 20
 Cytokinesis in plant cells

In plant cells, during cytokinesis, a cell plate is formed which divides the cell into two parts.
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 Complete Cell Cycle

(G1/S restriction)

(G2/M restriction)

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 Meiosis (reproduction or sex cell formation: gametes)

 A process where a single parent cell divides twice to produce four

daughter cells containing half the original amount of genetic material.
 Occurs in sex cells (gametes) – sperm in males, eggs in females.
 One diploid cell produces 4 haploid cells.
 Number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is halved, i.e., in humans
gametes (haploid) have 23 chromosomes only [while somatic cells
(diploid) have 46 chromosomes].
 Occurs during sexual reproduction.

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 Meiosis “shuffles” the genes (genetic crossover in some part of the chromatids) so
that the an individual’s gametes are genetically different from one another.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes. This crossover happens in Prophase-I.

A A a a A a A A a a
B B b b B b B B b b
C C c c C c C c C c

Chromosome crossover in Prophase-I

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 Meiosis (contd.)
 Until Interphase, both Mitosis and
Meiosis are same.

 After Interphase, a cell goes through

M-phase twice, i.e.,
Interphase ⟶
followed by
Prophase-I ⟶ Metaphase-I ⟶
Anaphase-I ⟶ Telophase-I ⟶
Cytokinesis-I ⟶
followed by
Prophase-II ⟶ Metaphase-II
⟶ Anaphase-II ⟶ Telophase-II
⟶ Cytokinesis-II
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Meiosis-I (separates homologous chromosomes)

Prophase–I involves:
 Synapsis: Pairing
of homologous
chromosomes
forming tetrads.

 Crossing-over:
Exchange of genes
between non-sister
chromatids at
points of contact
(Chiasma).

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Meiosis-II (separates sister chromatids)

 4 haploid
daughter cells
are obtained
after Meiosis-
II.
 Each daughter
cell has 23
chromosomes

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 Meiosis
Cell-Division
Cycle

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Mitosis vs. Meiosis
at a glance in
humans:
# of Chromosomes

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 Mitosis Meiosis
• Diploids (2n) are produced from diploids (2n). In • Haploids (n) are produced from diploids (2n).
humans: n = 23
• 2 daughter cells are generated. • 4 daughter cells are generated.
• Number of chromosomes remain the same in • Number of chromosomes is halved in each daughter
daughter cells (total 46). cell (23 only).
• Occurs during cellular reproduction for growth • Occurs during sexual reproduction. Only
and repair. Takes place in all somatic cells except reproductive/germ cells participate (eggs, sperms).
nerve cells, RBCs.
• Daughter cells are genetically identical to each • Genetic variation may happen in daughter cells
other and to parent cell. (due to crossing over).
• Only one cell division (4 phases: PMAT). • Two cell division one after another (8 phases:
PMAT-I + PMAT-II).
• Synapsis of homologous chromosomes does not • During Metaphase-I, homologous chromosomes
occur. pair up along their length forming tetrads (group of
4 chromatids), crossing over between non-sister
chromatids occurs.
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Some useful information:

 RBCs are not produced by Mitosis/Meiosis as they don’t have nucleus, DNA,
or mitochondria.

 RBCs are produced from stem cells in bone marrow after losing nucleus and
other organelles.

 Uncontrolled division of cells (Mitosis) causes cancer (tumor cells).

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 Sexual reproduction

 Fusion (fertilization) of two gametes (n) to produce a single zygote (2n).

 Fertilization of a sperm and an egg results in a unique offspring.

 A special feature called as Genetic shuffling occurs in Meiosis:

• Crossing over in Prophase-I (creates new combination of genes on each
chromosome, results in mixing of genes inherited from parents).

• Independent assortment in Metaphase-I (random alignment/arrangement

of homologous chromosomes results in several possible combinations of
maternal and paternal chromosomes, 2n = 223 = ~ 8 million possible
combinations).

 1 sperm cell (1 of 8 million possible chromosome combinations) x 1 egg cell (1

of 8 million possible chromosome combinations) = 64 trillion (1012) diploid
combinations. 37
2n = 22 = 4
possible
combinations
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