Operating System

Mr.Samiullah
Lecturer
I.S.P University, Multan

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating system concept 9th Edition
By
Silberschrtz, Galvin and Gangne
 Chapter 1: Introduction
• What Operating Systems Do
• Computer-System Organization
• Computer-System Architecture
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security
• Kernel Data Structures
• Computing Environments
• Open-Source Operating Systems
 Objectives
• To describe the basic organization of computer systems
• To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating
systems
• To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
• To explore several open-source operating systems
 What is an Operating System?
• A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 Computer System Structure
• Computer system can be divided into four components:
• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
• Users
• People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
 What Operating Systems Do
• Depends on the point of view
• Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
• But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all
users happy
• Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources
but frequently use shared resources from servers
• Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and
battery life
• Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
 Operating System Definition
• OS is a resource allocator
• Manages all resources
• Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
• OS is a control program
• Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)
• No universally accepted definition
• “ Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is
a good approximation
• But varies wildly
• “ The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
• Everything else is either
• a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
• an application program.
 Computer Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 Computer System Organization
• Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
 Computer-System Operation
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
• Each device controller has a local buffer
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
 Common Functions of Interrupts
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
• A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused
either by an error or a user request
• An operating system is interrupt driven
 Interrupt Handling
• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
• Polling
• vectored interrupt system(work on hardware level also tell
which device is ready also identify device name)
• Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
 I/O Structure
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and
to modify table entry to include interrupt
 Storage Structure
• Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile
• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
• Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording
material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the
computer
• Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular
 Storage Hierarchy
• Storage systems organized in hierarchy
• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
• Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
• Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
 Caching
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there
• Cache smaller than storage being cached
• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy
 Computer-System Architecture
• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
• Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
• Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
 A Dual-Core Design
• Multi-chip and multicore
• Systems containing all chips
• Chassis containing multiple separate systems
 Clustered Systems
• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
• Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
• Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
• Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use parallelization
• Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations
Clustered Systems
 Operating System Structure
• Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• One job selected and run via job scheduling
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so

frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive
computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multi programmed System
 Operating-System Operations
• Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
• Software error (e.g., division by zero)
• Request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
 Operating-System Operations (cont.)
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
• User mode and kernel mode
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user
• Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
 Process Management
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
• Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 Memory Management
• To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory
• All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
• Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
• Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Storage Management
• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer
rate, access method (sequential or random)

• File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
• OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no
matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware

such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
• Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
• Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
 I/O Subsystem
• One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of
output of one job with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
 Protection and Security
• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to
resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft,
theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do
what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more
rights
End of Chapter 1