WEED SCIENCE

Definition
 Weed Science is the study of vegetation
management in agriculture, aquatics, horticulture,
right-of-way, essentially anywhere plants need to
be managed. It involves the study of all the tools
available for this purpose such as cropping
systems, herbicides, management techniques and
seed genetics. However, it is not just the
controlling of plants, but the study of these plants.
This includes plant ecology, physiology, and the
genetics of plants species that have been identified
to have impact on the economy and our ecology.
 Weed science is the discipline concerned with
plants that may be considered weeds, their
effects on human activities, and their
management "a branch of applied ecology that
attempts to modify the environment against
natural evolutionary trends.
 History
 Weeds have existed since the advent of settled
agriculture around 10,000 years ago it is been suggested
that the most common characteristic of the ancestors of
our presently dominant crop plants is their willingness
—their tendency to be successful, to thrive, in disturbed
habitats, mostly those around human dwellings.
Farmers have likely always been aware of weeds in their
crops, although the evidence for their awareness and
concern is nearly all anecdotal.
 Unlike other agricultural sciences
like entomology or plant pathology, the emergence of
weed science is comparatively recent largely within the
20th century.
 Weeds are controlled in much of the world by hand or with
crude hoes. The size of a farmer's holding and yield per
unit area are limited by several things and paramount
among them is the rapidity with which a family can weed
its crops. More human labor may be expended to weed
crops than on any other single human enterprise, and most
of that labor is expended by women. Weed control in the
Western world and other developed areas of the world is
done by sophisticated machines and by substituting
chemical energy (herbicides) for mechanical and human
energy. There is a relationship between the way farmers
control weeds and the ability of a nation to feed its people.
Successful weed management is one of the essential
ingredients to maintain and increase food production.
 In 1923, Clark and Fletcher suggested that the
"annual losses due to the occurrence of
pernicious weeds on farm land in Canada,
although acknowledged in a general way, are
far greater than is realized." They thought this
was because "farmers gave little critical
attention to the weeds growing among their
crops."
 They did not deny that farmers were aware of
the weeds only that they could do little about
them. Many of the same weeds described by
Clark and Fletcher are shown in most current
weed identification books. In spite of continued
research to mitigate weeds annually many of
the same species continue to be problematic.
 Definition of weed
 Weed, general term for any plant growing where it
is not wanted. Ever since humans first attempted
the cultivation of plants, they have had to fight the
invasion by weeds into areas chosen for crops.
Some unwanted plants later were found to have
virtues not originally suspected and so were
removed from the category of weeds and taken
under cultivation. Other cultivated plants, when
transplanted to new climates, escaped cultivation
and became weeds or invasive species. The
category of weeds thus is ever changing, and the
term is a relative one.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
WEEDS
 DEFINITION
 Any plant not sown in the field by the farmer
and grow where they are not wanted is called a
weed. Weeds are like any other crop plants in
size, form, morphological and physiological
characters but possess the following
characteristics on account of which they are
considered as enemy of crops.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS
 The weeds seed germinate early and the
seedlings grow faster. They being hardy
compete with the crop plants and deprive them
of light, moisture and nutrients.
 They flower earlier, run to seed in profusion
and mature ahead of the crop. They are,
therefore, difficult to control and it may be
even impossible to eradicate some weeds
completely.
 They are unuseful, unwanted and undesirable
 They are harmful to crops, cattle and human-
beings.
 They can survive even under adverse
conditions.
 They are prolific and have a very high
reproductive capacity.
 Viability of seeds remains intact, even if they
are buried deep in the soil.
 The seeds may have special structures like
wings, spines, hooks, sticky hairs etc. on
account of which they can be easily
disseminated over long distance.
 Many weeds like doob are vegatatively
propagated and spread rapidly all over the
field even under adverse conditions.
WEEDS, CROPS AND
OTHER PEST
 WEEDS
 Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plant
that interfere with utilization of land and water
resources and thus adversely affect crop
production and human welfare.
 Sometimes Agriculture also defined as a battle
with weeds as they strongly compete with crop
plants for growth factors.
 There are approximately 250,000 species of
plants worldwide; of those, about 3% or 8000
species behave as weeds.
 Despite the negative impacts of weeds, some
plants usually thought of as weeds may actually
provide some benefits. Some attributes include:
 soil stabilization;
 habitat and feed for wildlife,
 nectar for bees;
 aesthetic qualities;
 add organic matter;
 provide genetic reservoir;
 human consumption; and
 provide employment opportunities.
 Weeds have a controversial nature. But to the
agriculturist, they are plants that need to be
controlled, in an economical and practical way,
in order to produce food, feed, and fiber for
humans and animals. In this context, the
negative impacts of weeds indirectly affect all
living beings.
 CROPS
 A crop is a plant or animal product that can be
grown and harvested extensively for profit or
subsistence.
 Crop may refer either to the harvested parts or
to the harvest in a more refined state. Most
crops are cultivated
in agriculture or aquaculture.
 Most crops are harvested as food for humans
or fodder for livestock. Some crops are gathered from
the wild (including intensive gathering, e.g. ginseng).
 Important non-food crops include horticulture,
floriculture and industrial crops. Horticulture crops
include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit
trees). Floriculture crops include bedding plants,
houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut
cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Industrial crops are
produced for clothing (fiber crops), biofuel (energy,
crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).
 PEST
 A pest is any animal or plant detrimental to
humans or human concerns, including crops,
livestock and forestry. The term is also used of
organisms that cause a nuisance, such as in the
home.
 An older usage is of a deadly epidemic disease,
specifically plague. In its broadest sense, a pest
is a competitor of humanity
CLASSIFICATION OF
WEEDS
 Out of 2,50,000 plant species, weeds
constitute about 250 species, which are
prominent in agricultural and non-agricultural
system. Under world conditions about 30000
species are grouped as weeds which are
classified as follows:
 I. Based on life span
 a. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete
their life cycle in that season or year are called as annual
weeds.
These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak
stems. Produces seeds in profusion and the mode of
propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding,
the annuals die away and the seeds germinate and start
the next generation in the next season or year following.
Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are:
a. Monsoon annuals: Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia
erecta
b. Winter annuals: Chenopodium album
 b. Biennials
They complete the vegetative growth in the
first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are
found mainly in non-cropped areas.
e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota
 c. Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost
indefinitely. They adapt to withstand adverse environmental
conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also
by underground stems, roots, rhizomes, tubers etc. and hence
they are further classified into
i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds
e.g. Sonchus arvensis
ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem
with scales and reproduce mainly from bulbs and seeds
e.g. Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot
and fleshy stem and reproduce through corm and seeds e.g.
Timothy (Phleum pratense)
 iv. Creeping perennials: They reproduce
through seeds as well as with one of the
followings:
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem
– Sorghum halepense
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping
stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon
c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system
with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes
adapted for storage of food – Cyperus rotundu
 II. Based on ecological affinities
 a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit.
They can thrive well under waterlogged and in
partially dry conditions. Propagation is chiefly by
seed e.g. Ammania baccifera, Eclipta alba
 b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)
These weeds neither require large quantities of
water like wetland weeds nor can they successfully
withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds
e.g. Trianthema portulacastrum, Digera arvensis
 c. Dry lands weeds
These are usually hardy plants with deep root
system. They are adapted to withstand drought
on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem
and hairiness e.g. Tribulus terrestris, Argemone
mexicana.
EFFECTS OF WEEDS ON
HUMAN AFFAIR
The effects of weeds on human affair is broad,
such as environment, livestock, and health.
 ENVIRONMENT
 Weeds are one of the major threats to
environment.
 Major weed invasions change the natural
diversity and balance of ecological
communities. These changes threaten the
survival of many plants and animals because
the weeds compete with native plants for
space, nutrients and sunlight.
 Livestock
 Weeds reduce the quantity and quality of
agricultural, horticultural and forestry
products, affecting both industry and
consumers.
 The real cost of weeds to the environment is
difficult to calculate, however it is expected
that the cost would be similar to, if not greater
than, that estimated for agricultural industries.
 HUMAN HEALTH
 Weeds can also cause human health problems.
Many common weeds such as Parthenium
Weed, Ragweed, Rye Grass and Privet cause
asthma and other respiratory problems,
especially in children. Some weeds can also
cause skin irritation and some are poisonous.
 Some water weeds such as Water Hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and Cabomba (Cabomba
caroliniana) can affect the quality of our
drinking water if infestations are not managed
within water supply dams.
 There are no common characteristics of a
poison or harmful weed that would help
distinguish them. But as a general rule, plants
with a bitter taste, unusual smell, milky sap or
red berries may be poisonous with some plants
having poisonous roots and bulbs.
 REPRODUCTION
AND ESTABLISHMENT OF
WEED
 WEED REPRODUCTION
 Weeds most often reproduce by seed.
 Some weeds reproduce through vegetative
means.
 new individuals formed from multicellular
structures of a single plant.
 vegetative reproduction is a trait that is shared
by 60% of the world’s worst weeds.
 reproduction by vegetative methods makes
weed control extremely difficult
 An understanding of a weed’s breeding system,
methods of propagule dispersal, and life form is
important.
 These attributes can be used to predict
population spread and longevity.
 They can also be used to predict genetic
diversity within and among populations.
 The more genetically diverse a population:  the
more it is buffered from management strategies
 more likely that individuals are present that
can adapt to the strategy.
 the more it is buffered from management
strategies
 more likely that individuals are present that
can adapt to the strategy.
 BREEDING SYSTEM
 Outcrossing
 Self pollination
 Clonal
 Mixed mating
 Breeding systems for many weeds are not well
known.
 OUTCROSSING
 The gametes that form the zygote are genetically
dissimilar. Self-incompatibility may be involved.
Outcrossing may occur between closely related
individuals. Inbreeding depression Leads to
more diversity within a population. Leads to less
diversity among populations. Populations from
different geographies are not very specialized.
At low densities there may not be enough pollen
to produce the full potential of seed. If the
species is an obligate outcrosser, at least two
plants are required to start a new population.
 SELF-POLLINATION
 The gametes that form the zygote are
genetically very similar. Leads to less diversity
within a population. A population can be
relatively homozygous. Leads to more
diversity among populations. Populations from
different geographies can be very specialized.
If the species can self pollinate, only one plant
is required to start a new population.
 CLONAL
 Offspring are genetically identical to the
maternal parent. Within population diversity
can be hard to predict.
 is it a mixture of clones?
 is it only one clone? mutations are preserved.
 Among population diversity also can be hard
to predict.
 It only takes one plant to start a new
population.
 MIXED MATING
 May be the most common method in weeds.
 The distribution of heterozygotes,
homozygotes, and clones depends on the
proportion in the original population.
 Some common combinations
 Facultative selfing in an outcrossing species
 Predominately selfing with a low level of
outcrossing
 Outcrossing with clonal capacity
 Facultative apomixis
Breeding systems for many weeds are not
well known.
 An asexual form of reproduction where a seed
is formed without fertilization.
  Somatic cells or gametes in the mother plant
develop into an embryo.
  Examples - Hawkweed (Hieracium spp.),
dandelion (Taraxacum), some citrus (Citrus),
blackberries (Rubus spp.), and Kentucky
bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
 CROP-WEED
COMPETITION
 Competition from weeds is the most important
of all biological factors that reduce agricultural
crop yield. This occurs primarily because
weeds use resources that would otherwise be
available to the crop.
 The magnitude of yield loss is affected by
numerous agronomic and environmental
factors, most importantly, weed density and
time of emergence relative to the crop.
 The most common method currently employed
to manage weeds is the use of herbicides.
Producers can choose from many available
options, each with its own distinct set of
advantages and disadvantages. In addition,
there are several different methods for applying
herbicides. Regardless of the herbicide or
method of application, the goal of using a
herbicide is to prevent the weeds from
contributing to a crop yield loss, by reducing the
amount of competition exerted by the weeds.
 Those involved in managing weeds have long
recognized how weeds can harm crop growth
and productivity by competing for light,
moisture, nutrients, and space, as well as by
hampering harvesting operations, reducing
quality of the harvested crop, and producing
weed propagules, thus leading to future
problems.
 Numerous studies over the years have
compared weed species and density in various
crops and assessed the importance of (1)
duration of competition and (2) time of weed
removal. From those studies, some general
guidelines have evolved as to relative
competitiveness of weeds with various crops,
the weed-free time needed following crop
emergence, and the appropriate time of weed
removal with postemergence treatments to
preclude loss of crop quantity and quality.
 Numerous studies have investigated crop/weed competition
from a variety of aspects. The results of these studies can be
helpful in making decisions about weed management, as
guidelines can be prepared indicating, in general, the relative
competitive ability of various weeds at various densities in our
major crops. These studies also provide guidelines for duration
of weed-free conditions needed after crop emergence and for
the time when weeds should be removed with postemergence
herbicides. Data are somewhat limited, however, on mixtures
of several weed species in competition studies. Other types of
concerns, such as perception of the producer, neighbors, and
landlord, may be as important as yield-loss indications from
crop/weed competition studies in determining the types of
weed management systems implemented.
CHANGE IN WEED
POPULATION
 Weed Population Shifts
 Weed population shifts are the changes in the
individual organisms that make up the
population of a locality, often caused by
changes in weed management practices. The
bottom line for a farmer, and an individual
field, is that because weeds adapt they change.
 Those practices that controlled weeds in your
field this year probably won't provide
acceptable weed control in future years.
 Because what you do today kills those weeds
susceptible to your management practices.
 The few weeds that survive today's
management practices are the parents of the
weed problems you will have in the future:
leaner, meaner, better able to handle what you
dish out.
 This process has been going on for thousands
of years. Every crop grown by humans, in
every field, in every year for the history of
agriculture has resulted in the weeds you have
in your field today.
 Agronomic practices (e.g. mechanization,
herbicides, new crops and crop varieties) and
an increase in the size and structure of land
holdings can change the weed species present
(interspecific population shifts), as well as the
genotypes of a species present (intraspecific
population shifts), in a local agroecosystem
 Inter-specific Population Shifts
 Many weeds have undergone very large
extensions of the ranges (e.g. foxtails) they
thrive in while others formerly widespread
have all but disappeared.
 Before WWII and the use of herbicides the
weeds in Iowa corn fields were different than
they are today. At that earlier time broadleaf
weeds were considered the major weed
problem (farmers grouped plants in their fields
into "weeds" and "grasses")
 Intra-specific Population Shifts
 Selection for weedy adaptations can result in
changes within a species. The selection for new
and better adapted variants of a species can
cause shifts in the composition of a population
of an individual species in a field or area.
 Just as herbicides selected and shifted different
species in a fields weed community, herbicides
and other forces have caused shifts within
populations of one species to better adapted
variants.