CE3391 FLUID MECHANICS

AND MACHINERY
 CE3391 SYLLABUS
UNIT I FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW
CHARACTERISTICS
Properties of fluids – Fluid statics -
Pressure Measurements - Buoyancy and
floatation - Flow characteristics - Eulerian
and Lagrangian approach - Concept of
control volume and system - Reynold’s
transportation theorem - Continuity
equation, energy equation and momentum
equation - Applications.
UNIT II FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND
BOUNDARY LAYER
Reynold’s Experiment - Laminar flow
through circular conduits - Darcy Weisbach
equation - friction factor - Moody diagram -
Major and minor losses - Hydraulic and
energy gradient lines - Pipes in series and
parallel - Boundary layer concepts - Types
of boundary layer thickness.
 UNIT III DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
AND MODEL STUDIES
Fundamental dimensions - Dimensional
homogeneity - Rayleigh’s method and
Buckingham Pi theorem - Dimensionless
parameters - Similitude and model studies -
Distorted and undistorted models.
 UNIT IV TURBINES
Impact of jets - Velocity triangles - Theory
of rotodynamic machines - Classification of
turbines - Working principles - Pelton wheel
- Modern Francis turbine - Kaplan turbine -
Work done - Efficiencies - Draft tube -
Specific speed - Performance curves for
turbines - Governing of turbines.
 UNIT V PUMPS
Classification of pumps - Centrifugal
pumps - Working principle - Heads and
efficiencies– Velocity triangles - Work done
by the impeller - Performance curves -
Reciprocating pump working principle -
Indicator diagram and it’s variations - Work
saved by fitting air vessels - Rotary pumps.
 OBJECTIVES
 To introduce the students about properties of the fluids,
behaviour of fluids under static conditions.
 To impart basic knowledge of the dynamics of fluids and
boundary layer concept.
 To expose to the applications of the conservation laws to
a) flow measurements b) flow through pipes (both laminar
and turbulent) and c) forces on pipe bends.
 To exposure to the significance of boundary layer theory
and its thicknesses.
 To expose the students to basic principles of working of
hydraulic machineries and to design Pelton wheel, Francis
and Kaplan turbine, centrifugal and reciprocating pumps.
 OUTCOMES
Able to
 Understand the properties and behaviour in static conditions. Also,
to understand the conservation laws applicable to fluids and its
application through fluid kinematics and dynamics
 Estimate losses in pipelines for both laminar and turbulent
conditions and analysis of pipes connected in series and parallel.
Also, to understand the concept of boundary layer and its thickness
on the flat solid surface.
 Formulate the relationship among the parameters involved in the
given fluid phenomenon and to predict the performances of
prototype by model studies
 Explain the working principles of various turbines and design the
various types of turbines.
 Explain the working principles of centrifugal, reciprocating and
rotary pumps and design the centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
 What is meant by Fluid?
A fluid is a substance which deforms
continuously under the action of shear
stress. Fluid may be defined as a substance
which is capable of flowing.
It has no definite shape
Shear stresses occur in fluids only when
they are in motion.
Rate of strain is directly proportional to
the applied stress.
 Classification of Fluids
Ideal
fluids and Real or Practical fluids
Newtonian and Non – Newtonian fluids
◦ Ideal Fluids: A fluid which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity
◦ Real fluids: A fluid, which possess viscosity. All the
fluids in actual practice are called real fluids.
◦ Newtonian Fluids: A real fluid, in which the shear
stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain.
◦ Non – Newtonian Fluids: A real fluid, in which the
shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear
strain
 Units and Dimensions
Fundamental Units
◦ Length (L), Mass (M), Time (T)
Derived Units
◦ Ex: Area, Velocity, Acceleration, Pressure,
etc.,
System of units:
◦ C.G.S units
◦ F.P.S. units
◦ M.K.S.units
◦ S.I.units
 Properties of Fluids
 Mass Density
 Specific Weight
 Specific Volume
 Specific gravity
 Temperature
 Viscosity
 Compressibility
 Bulk Modulus
 Vapor Pressure
 Capillarity
 Surface Tension
 Mass Density
Mass density or Density is defined as the
mass per unit volume.
It is denoted by Greek symbol rho.
Its unit is kg/m3
Density = Mass/Volume
 Specific Weight (w)
It is defined as the weight possessed per
unit volume.
It is denoted by w.
It varies from place to place because of
acceleration due to gravity changes from
place to place.
◦ W = Weight/Volume
Its unit is N/m3
 Specific Volume(v)
It is defined as volume of fluid occupied
by unit mass.
Its unit is m3/kg.
It is the reciprocal of density.
◦ v = Volume / mass
 Specific Gravity (s)
It is the ratio of specific weight of any
fluid to the specific weight of the standard
fluid.
It can also be defined as the mass density
of a given fluid to the mass density of the
standard fluid.
It has no unit
Generally pure water is taken as standard
fluid.
Problem 1
Calculate the specific weight, mass density,
specific gravity and specific volume of oil
having a volume of 4.5m3 and weight of
40kN.
Ans: w = 8.889x103 N/m3
Density = 906.1 kg/m3
S = 0.906
v= 1.1x 10-3m3/kg
Problem 2
Determine the density, specific weight and
specific volume of air 1.1bar and 20°C.
Assume the characteristic equation for
gases as pV =mRT. Take R = 287 J/kgK.
Ans: Density = 1.3 kg/m3
w = 12.75N/m3
 Temperature
It is a property which is used to determine the
degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat
intensity of a body.
◦ Absolute Temperature
 It is the zero below which the temperature of any
substance cannot fall, i.e. -273°C
◦ Standard Temperature and pressure (STP)
 Standard Temperature = 15°C
 Standard Pressure = 760mm of Hg = 101.325 kN/mm2
◦ Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP)
 Normal Temperature = 0°C
 Normal Pressure = 760mm of Hg
 Viscosity
 It is the property of a fluid which determines
the amount of resistance to a shearing stress.
 A real fluid has no viscosity but it is non-
existent.
 It is also defined as which it offers resistance
to the movement of one layer of fluid over
another adjacent layer.
 Viscosity increases with increase in
temperature in the case of gases whereas it
decrease in the case of liquids.
Viscosity Continues……..
Temperature Vs Viscosity of fluids
 Dynamic Viscosity (µ)
Dynamic Viscosity µ = Shear stress/change
in velocity gradient
Its unit is N-s/m2 or Poise or centipoise
1Poise = 0.1 N-s/m2
1 Centipoise = 1/100 Poise
 Kinematic Viscosity (v)
It is defined as the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to mass density.
Its unit is m2/sec.
V = viscosity/density
Other unit is stokes
1stoke = 10-4 m2/sec
Problem 3
Calculate the viscosity of a liquid having
kinematic viscosity 8.5 stokes and specific
gravity 1.4.
Ans: µ = 1.19 N-s/m2
Problem 4
The velocity gradient at a certain point of
stream of glycerin is 0.32s-1. The density of
the glycerin is 1270 kg/m3 and the
kinematic viscosity is 6.5 x 10-6 m2/sec.
Calculate the shear stress at the point.
Ans: µ = 8.255x10-3 Ns/m2
shear stress = 2.64x10-3 N/m2
Problem 5
A plate 0.03mm distance from a fixed plate
moves at a velocity of 1.45 m/sec and
requires a force of 2.13 N/m2 to maintain
this speed. Calculate the fluid viscosity
between the plates.
Ans: µ = 4.4 x 10-5 Ns/m2
Problem 6
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for
lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an
inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in figure. The
weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined
plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is
1.5 mm.

Ans: µ = 1.17 Ns/m2 11.7 Poise.

 Vapor Pressure
All liquids evaporate or vaporize when it
is exposed to atmosphere.
When the liquid is kept in a closed vessel,
it evaporates and the vapor occupies the
space between the free liquid surfaces and
the top of the vessel.
The above accumulated pressure creates
partial pressure on the surface.
It is called Vapor Pressure
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
It is defined as the ratio of compressive
stress to volumetric strain. It is the
reciprocal of bulk modulus
It is defined as the ratio of change in
pressure to the rate of change of volume
due to the change in pressure.
K = Change in pressure / Change in volume
per original volume
K = - dp/(dv/v)
 Capillarity
It is defined as a phenomenon of rise or
fall of a liquid surface in a small tube
relative to the adjacent general level of
liquid when the tube is held vertically in
the liquid.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘h’ and its unit
is ‘mm’ or ‘m’
Capillary Rise and Fall
 Surface Tension
It is defined as the tensile force acting on
the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas
or on the surface between two immiscible
liquids such that the contact surface
behaves like a membrane under tension.
It is denoted by the letter Greek word
Its unit is N/m.
Surface Tension
Problem 7
The volume of a liquid is decreased by
0.2% when the pressure of the liquid is
increased from 8 MPa to 20 Mpa.
Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity
and compressibility.

Ans: K = 6x109 N/m2

Compressibility = 1.66x10-10 m2/N
Problem 8
A fluid having coefficient of
compressibility 0.8x10-9 m2/N is completely
filled in a reservoir of capacity 0.015 m 3.
Calculate the amount of fluid that will spill
over, if pressure in the reservoir is reduced
by 18 MPa.

Ans: dV =2.16x10-4 m3
Problem 9
Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of
4mm diameter when immersed in (i) water,
(ii) Mercury. Assume σ water = 0.075 N/m
and σmercury = 0.45 N/m.

Ans: i) h = 0.076m, ii) h = 0.00258m

Problem 10
A U tube manometer is made up of two
capillaries of bore 1.2mm and 1.8mm
respectively. The tube is held vertically and
is partially filled with liquid of
surfacetension0.06 N/m and zero contact
angle. Calculate the density of the liquid, if
the estimated pressure difference in the
level of two meniscii is 12mm.
Ans: Density = 566.3 Kg/m3
 Flow Characteristics
Concept of Control Volume
A specified large number of fluid and
thermal devices have mass flow in and out of a
system called as control volume.
Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume which is called
control surface.
Control volume may be fixed in size and
shape.
Application of Continuity Equation
It is governed from the principle of
conservation of mass.
It states that the mass of fluid flowing
through the pipe at all cross – section
remains constant, if there is no fluid is
added or removed from the pipe.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Consider two cross sections of a pipe as
shown in figure:
Total quantity of fluid pass through Section 1 =
Density 1 X A1 X V1
Total quantity of fluid passing through Section 2 =
Density 2 X A2 X V2
From law of conservation of mass
Density1A1V1 = Density2A2V2
For Incompressible fluids density is constant
A1V1 = A2V2
 Discharge
The product AxV is the quantity of fluid
which passes a reference point per unit time
and is called as flow rate or discharge (Q)
Q=AxV
Continuity Equation in Differential
form
Problem 11
A swimming pool of 8m x15m is to be
filled to a depth of 2.5m. Determine the
inflow required in m3/s for a filling time of
90 minutes. If 40mm pipes are available
and the water velocity in each hose is
limited to 2 m/s, determine the number of
hoses required.
Ans: 23 Hoses
Problem 12
A 400mm diameter pipe branches in to two
pipes of diameters 200mm and 250mm
respectively. If the average velocity in the
400mm diameter pipe is 2.2m/s, find the
discharge in this pipe. Also determine the
velocity in 250mm pipe, if the average
velocity in 200mm diameter pipe is 2.6m/s.
Ans: V3 = 3.968 m/s.
Application of Energy Equation
Euler’s equation
If the flow is assumed to be ideal,
viscous force(Fv) is zero and equation of
motions are known as Euler’s equation of
motion.
Problem 13
Water is flowing through a tapering pipe
having diameters 300mm and 150mm at
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The discharge
through the pipe is 40lit/s. The section 1 is
10m above datum and section 2 is 6m
above datum. Find pressure at section 2, if
that at section 1 is 400 kN/m2.
Ans: 37.24 kN/m2
Problem 14
The water is flowing through a taper pipe
having diameter 400mm at the bottom end
and 250mm at the upper end. The intensity
of pressure at the bottom and upper end are
250 kN/m2 and 100 kN/m2 respectively.
Calculate the difference in datum head, if
the rate of flow through pipe is 30 lit/s.
Ans: Z2 – Z1 = 15.27 m
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Venturimeter
Orificemeter
Pitot Tube
Venturimeter
Venturimeter Continues…..
Problem 15
A mercury filled U-tube manometer
connected across a venturimeter records a
difference of 30mm. Diameters at the inlet
and throat of venturimeter are 100mm and
50mm respectively. If oil of specific gravity
0.85 flows through the horizontal pipe.
Calculate the discharge. Take Cd = 0.9.
Ans: Q = 5.41x10-3 m3/s.
Problem 16
A 30cmx15cm venturimeter is provided in a
vertical pipeline carrying oil of specific
gravity 0.9, the flow being upwards. The
difference in elevations of the throat section
and entrance section of venturimeter is
30cm. The pressure difference in
manometer is 25cm of Hg. Take Cd = 0.98.
Calculate discharge of oil and pressure
difference between entrance and throat.
Orificemeter
Orificemeter Continues….
Problem 17
An orificemeter with orifice diameter 15cm
is inserted in a pipe of 30cm diameter the
pressure on the upstream and downstream
of orifice meter is 14.7 N/cm2 and 9.81
N/cm2 respectively. Find the discharge.
Take Cd =0.6.
Ans: h = 4.985m, Q = 0.1083m3/s
Pressure and its Measurement
Pascal’s Law:
It states that the pressure or intensity
of pressure at a point in a static fluid is
equal in all directions.
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
It states that the rate of increase of
pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of the fluid at that point.
This is Hydrostatic Law.
P = density x gravity x pressure
head
Problem 18
A hydraulic press has a ram of 30cm
diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm diameter.
Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press
when the force applied at the plunger is 500
N.
Ans: W = 22222 N
 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and
Vacuum Pressures
 Absolute Pressure
◦ It is defined as the pressure which is measured
with reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
 Gauge Pressure
◦ It is defined as the pressure which is measured
with the help of a pressure measuring instrument,
in which atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
 Vacuum Pressure
◦ It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric
pressure.
Measurement of Pressure
The pressure of fluid is measured by the
following devices:
◦ Manometers
◦ Mechanical gauges
Manometers
It is the device which is used for measuring
the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same
or another column of the fluid.
Simple Manometers
Differential Manometers
Simple Manometers
A simple manometer consists of a
glass tube having one of its ends connected
to a point where pressure is to be measured
and other end remains open to atmosphere.
Common types of simple manometers are:
◦ Piezometer
◦ U – tube Manometer
◦ Single Column Manometer
Buoyancy
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an
upward force is exerted by the fluid on the
body.
This upward force is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body and is
called the force of buoyancy or simply
buoyancy.
Centre of Buoyancy
It is defined as the point, through which the
force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the
force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the
centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.