FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITY

Base Quantity Name Symbol Defined

Length meter m Length of path travelled by light in a vacuum

Mass kilogram kg Platinum alloy cylinder kept at Sevres, France

Time second s Time takes for cesium atom to complete

9192631770 oscillations
Electric current ampere A // wires 1 m apart will produce a F =2 ×N/m

thermodynamic kelvin K A fraction of 1/273.16 of triple point of water

temperature
Amount of substance mole mol Equivalent to # of atoms in 12 g of C

Luminosity candela cd fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of

monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × Hz

Cannot be expressed as a combination of the other six quantities

Base Unit Equivalent
DERIVED QUANTITIES
Expressed in terms of base or derived quantities by means of mathematical
symbol of multiplication and division only.

SPEED ACCELERATION FORCE DENSITY

m/s m/ N kg/
PRESSURE POWER ENERGY ELECTRIC CHARGE
(Pascal) (Watt) (Joule) (Coulomb)

Pa W J C
Unit names are only capitalized if named after a scientists
METRIC SYSTEM PREFIXES
Decimal-based system of unit of measurement used in STEM . A prefix can be attached to a
unit to increase or decrease its size by powers of 10.
PREFIX SYMBOL EXPONENT

yotta Y 10
24

zetta Z 10
21

exa E 10
18

peta P 10
15

tera T 10
12

giga G 10
9

mega M 10
6

kilo k 10
3
METRIC SYSTEM PREFIXES

PREFIX SYMBOL EXPONENT

yocto y 10
− 24

zepto z 10
− 21

atto a 10
− 18

femto f 10
− 15

pico p 10
− 12

nano n 10
−9

micro µ 10
−6

milli m 10
−3
What is Scientific Notation

A short hand method of writing numbers using the

power of 10. When a number converts into scientific
notation, it becomes a decimal rather than an
extended amount of numbers.
PARTS OF SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Decimal
Coefficient The number that is equal to or greater than one and less
than 10.
Base The base is always the number 10.
Exponent How many times you multiply 10 by itself. It represents the
number of times you move a decimal to form the final
coefficient.
Power of 10 The exponent and base together are the power of 10. These
numbers give you the final total of the scientific notation.
RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
2. All zero digits occurring between non-zero digits are
significant.
3. All non-zero digit to the right of the decimal point
are significant figure.
4. Trailing zeros after a decimal point are significant
numbers. Since this shows accuracy.
5. Significant figure is conserved. Significant figures
should not change even if the unit of measurement is
changed.
Measurement is the foundation for all experimental science.

The measurement of an amount is based on some international

standards, which are completely accurate compared with others.

Every measurement carries a level of uncertainty known as an

error.
The difference between the measurements is referred to as an
ERROR.
Accuracy is the degree of conformity and correctness of measurement when
compared to the true or absolute value.
Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.
Types of Error
Gross error which basically takes into account human oversight and other
mistakes while reading, recording, and readings, “ human error”.
Random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random.
These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions
Errors are a measure of the lack of certainty in a value. All
experimental uncertainty is due to either random errors or
systematic errors.

Random Errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in

the measured data due to the precision limitations of the
measurement device. It usually result from the experimenter's
inability to take the same measurement in exactly the same way to
get exact the same number.
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS are reproducible inaccuracies that are
consistently in the same direction. Often due
to a problem which persists throughout the entire experiment.
Systematic and Random Error refer to problems associated with
making measurements. Mistakes made in the calculations or in
reading the instruments are not considered in error analysis.
How To Reduce Errors In Measurement
Gross errors can be avoided by taking proper care in reading, recording the data,
and accurately calculating the error.

Random errors can be reduced by using multiple experimenters, taking different

readings at different points, and taking the average of more readings.

Systematic errors can be reduced by using an instrument that has the highest
precision, pilot testing measuring instruments for better accuracy, and cross-
checking the measured value of a quantity for improved accuracy.
Precision is often reported quantitatively by using relative
or fractional uncertainty.

Relative Uncertainty =

Example: measured mass = 75.5 ± 0.5 g

It has a fractional uncertainty of: = 0.006 = 0.7%.
Accuracy is often reported quantitatively by using relative
error.

Relative Error =

Example: If the expected value for mass is 80.0 g and the measured
value is 75.5 then the relative error is: = −0.056 = −5.6%
TRIGONOMETRY
SCALAR QUANTITY

ONLY HAS MAGNITUDE (SIZE)

INCLUDES DISTANCE, SPEED, TIME, TEMPERATURE,

MASS, LENGTH, AREA, VOLUME, DENSITY, CHARGE,
PRESSURE, ENERGY, WORK AND POWER.

ANY REAL NUMBER IS AN EXAMPLE OF SCALAR

QUANTITY.
VECTOR QUANTITY
BOTH MAGNITUDE & DIRECTION.
AN ARROW ON THE TOP OF THE LETTER OFTEN
REPRESENTS VECTOR ( ).
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VECTOR IS
REPRESENTED BY |A| OR SIMPLY A.
INCLUDES DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY,
ACCELERATION, MOMENTUM, FORCE, LIFT, DRAG,
THRUST AND WEIGHT.
WHAT SET VECTORS APART FROM SCALARS ?
A SINGLE VECTOR MAY ACT ON A SINGLE POINT
OR A MULTITUDE OF VECTORS ACTING
SIMULTANEOUSLY ON A GIVEN POINT.

VECTORS CAN GO ON THE SAME DIRECTION

CONCURRENTLY OR GO AGAINST EACH
OTHER. EITHER WAY YOU MAY BE ASK TO
DERIVE THE RESULTANT VECTOR.
 ADDITION OF VECTORS
THIS IS A VECTOR:
THE LENGTH OF THE LINE SHOWS ITS MAGNITUDE AND
THE ARROWHEAD POINTS IN THE DIRECTION. WE CAN
ADD TWO VECTORS BY JOINING THEM HEAD-TO-TAIL.
AND IT DOESN'T MATTER WHICH ORDER WE ADD THEM,
WE GET THE SAME RESULT:
SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
WE CAN ALSO SUBTRACT ONE VECTOR FROM
ANOTHER: FIRST WE REVERSE THE DIRECTION OF
THE VECTOR WE WANT TO SUBTRACT, THEN ADD
THEM AS USUAL:
A vector can also be written as the letters of its head and tail with an
arrow above it, like this:

To do the calculation, the most common way is to first break up

vectors into x and y parts, like this:

The vector a is broken up into the two vectors and

 Adding Vectors
WE CAN THEN ADD VECTORS BY ADDING THE X PARTS AND ADDING
THE Y PARTS:

THE VECTOR (8, 13) AND THE VECTOR (26, 7) ADD UP TO THE VECTOR
(34, 20)
EXAMPLE: ADD THE VECTORS A = (8, 13) AND B = (26, 7)
C=A+B
C = (8, 13) + (26, 7)
= (8+26, 13+7) = (34, 20)
 HEAD-TO-TAIL METHOD

THE RESULTANT VECTOR (OR SUM OF VECTORS) IS

DRAWN FROM THE TAIL OF THE FIRST VECTOR TO THE
HEAD OF THE LAST VECTOR.
THIS METHOD IS OFTEN USED BECAUSE IT PROVIDES A
VISUAL WAY TO ADD VECTORS. IT’S ESPECIALLY
USEFUL WHEN DEALING WITH PROBLEMS INVOLVING
FORCES OR VELOCITIES, WHERE VECTOR QUANTITIES
NEED TO BE COMBINED.
PARALLELOGRAM METHOD

THIS IS A TECHNIQUE USED IN VECTOR ADDITION.

DRAW THE TWO VECTORS SUCH THAT THEIR TAILS TOUCH
EACH OTHER.
COMPLETE THE PARALLELOGRAM BY DRAWING THE OTHER
TWO SIDES.
THE DIAGONAL OF THE PARALLELOGRAM THAT HAS THE
SAME TAIL AS THE VECTORS REPRESENTS THE SUM OF THE
TWO VECTORS. THIS DIAGONAL IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS
THE RESULTANT VECTOR.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

TO SUBTRACT, FIRST REVERSE THE VECTOR WE WANT

TO SUBTRACT, THEN ADD
EXAMPLE: SUBTRACT K = (4, 5) FROM V = (12, 2)
A = V + −K
A = (12, 2) + −(4, 5)
= (12, 2) + (−4, −5)
= (12−4, 2−5) = (8, −3)
MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR

SHOWN BY TWO VERTICAL BARS ON EITHER SIDE OF THE

VECTOR:|A| OR IT CAN BE WRITTEN WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL
BARS (SO AS NOT TO CONFUSE IT WITH ABSOLUTE VALUE): ||A||
WE USE PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM TO CALCULATE THE
MAGNITUDE
|C| = √+ )
EXAMPLE: WHAT IS THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VECTOR C = (6,
8)?
|C| = √(+ )
= √( 36+64)
= √100 = 10
ANGLED VECTORS HAVE TWO COMPONENTS

ANY VECTOR DIRECTED IN TWO DIMENSIONS CAN BE

THOUGHT OF AS HAVING AN INFLUENCE IN TWO
DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS. THAT IS, IT CAN BE THOUGHT
OF AS HAVING TWO PARTS. EACH PART OF A TWO-
DIMENSIONAL VECTOR IS KNOWN AS A COMPONENT.
THE COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR DEPICT THE
INFLUENCE OF THAT VECTOR IN A GIVEN DIRECTION.
THE COMBINED INFLUENCE OF THE TWO COMPONENTS
IS EQUIVALENT TO THE INFLUENCE OF THE SINGLE
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VECTOR.
TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD OF VECTOR
RESOLUTION
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS RELATE THE
RATIO OF THE LENGTHS OF
THE SIDES OF A RIGHT
TRIANGLE TO THE MEASURE
OF AN ACUTE ANGLE WITHIN
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE.
A VECTOR CAN BE RESOLVED INTO TWO
COMPONENTS, NAMELY THE HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT AND THE VERTICAL COMPONENT.
IN FIGURE, A VECTOR F IS WORKING AT AN ANGLE OF
Θ WITH THE X-AXIS.
THE X-AXIS COMPONENT OF THIS VECTOR IS FX = F
COS Θ.
THE Y-AXIS COMPONENT IS FY = F SIN Θ.
 UNIT VECTORS
A UNIT VECTOR IS A
VECTOR WHOSE
MAGNITUDE IS 1.
UNIT VECTORS IN THREE
DIRECTIONS , AND
THE MAGNITUDES OF
THREE UNIT VECTORS ARE
AX = (1,0, 0),
AY = (0,1, 0) AND
AZ = (0,0, 1)
COSINE LAW
WHEN YOU HAVE TWO VECTORS THAT ARE NOT
AT RIGHT ANGLES TO EACH OTHER. TO FIND THE
MAGNITUDE YOU APPLY THE COSINE LAW.
SINE LAW IS USED TO FIND THE DIRECTION
The slope of a velocity–time
graph represents the object’s
acceleration and the area is the
displacement.
In order to solve problems with uniform acceleration
we use 3 formulas that make use of the following
variables:

- initial velocity
- final velocity
a - acceleration
d - displacement
t - time
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS
Motion along the x-axis (Horizontal Plane)
Practice Problem:
A man on grab motorcycle was running at 27 m/s when steps
on the brake because of the dog crossing which cause him
to decelerate at -8.4 m/. How long will it take him to stop?
How far will he skid?
Motion along the Y-axis (Vertical Plane)
Practice Problem:
A man at the rooftop of a 100 meter tall building in Alabang
decide to drop his 5210 Nokia cellphone. a) How long will the
cellphone be airborne? b) What will be the velocity upon
impact? Considering the acceleration due to gravity is -9.8
m/.
c) What if he decided to toast it up in the air at an initial
velocity of 10 m/s? How long it be airborne? What will be the
final velocity?
Using Quadratic Equation
In 2D kinematics problems, the quadratic equation
can be used to solve for the time it takes for an
object to reach a certain height or distance. For
example, if an object is thrown upward with an initial
velocity of v0 and reaches a maximum height of h,
we can use the quadratic equation to find the time it
takes to reach that height.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion can be treated as two rectilinear
motions, one in the horizontal direction experiencing
zero acceleration and the other in the vertical
direction experiencing constant acceleration (i.e.,
gravity).The horizontal and vertical components of
motions are independent from each other and we
will analyze them separately.
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
A movement of an object along the circumference
of a circle or rotation along a circular path. Uniform
circular motion can be described as the motion of
an object in a circle or a constant speed.
FORMULAS
T= r = radius of circle
v= velocity

= 2f
α = angle t= time
f= frequency T= period for one rotation
= v = velocity of the object
r = radius of the circle

= m = mass
v = velocity of the object
r = radius of the circle
The arc length (s) with an angle of one radian
is equal to the length of the radius.
1 rad = /180 = 57.296⁰
1 rev = 2 radians = 360°
radian = 180°
To convert degrees to radian:
no of degrees x
To convert radians to degrees:
no of radians x
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS
 FIRST LAW
“An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion unless acted on by a net external force”

While at rest, if the net force (the vector sum of the forces
acting on the body) is zero, then the object remains at rest. It
also means that a moving body does not change its velocity as
long as no external force affects it.
 MASS IS INERTIA

Mass and inertia has a direct relationship. Mass is a

quantitative measure of inertia, which is the resistance of an
object to change its state (of rest and/or of motion)
The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has, and the
more force it requires to accelerate or decelerate.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion and Its Applications

Acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
For Example: A constant force acting on two
different bodies. The object with greater mass
will have less acceleration and slower motion,
and the object with less mass has greater
acceleration.
 Why Weight should be in Newtons?

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

Weight is the force of gravity on your mass.
Gravity is a force that attracts mass together.
Weight is the name given to the force caused by the Earth’s gravity.
Weight is measured in newtons (N).
Newton’s Third Law of Motion and Its Applications

“For every action, there is an equal and

opposite reaction.”
All forces in the universe occur in equal but
oppositely directed pairs. There are no
isolated forces. For every external force that
acts on an object there is a force of equal
magnitude but opposite direction which acts
back on the object which exerted that external
force.
FRICTION & FREE BODY
DIAGRAM
 FRICTION IS FORCE

A force that opposes the relative motion of two objects or

surfaces that are in contact with each other. Friction can
have different effects depending on the situation.
 TYPES OF FRICTION

Static Friction - friction that exists between two objects or

surfaces that are not moving but are trying to move. Static
friction prevents the objects from sliding until a certain
amount of force is applied.
Kinetic Friction - friction that exists between two objects
or surfaces that are moving relative to each other. Kinetic
friction reduces the speed of the objects and converts some
of their kinetic energy into thermal energy. Kinetic friction
is usually less than static friction.
 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

A dimensionless scalar value that equals the ratio of the force of

friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together,
either during or at the onset of slipping.
μ = Ff / N
where:
μ is the coefficient of friction
F_f is the force of friction
N is the normal force
 NORMAL FORCE

The word ‘normal’ here means perpendicular to the

surface. Normal force is a type of force that acts on an
object when it is in contact with a surface. It is
perpendicular to the surface and prevents the object from
passing through it.
FREE BODY DIAGRAM

A a graphical representation of
an object and the forces that
act on it. It is a useful tool to
analyze the forces and
moments on an object in
isolation, without the influence
of other objects or the
environment.
WORK, ENERGY & POWER
Work is done when a force F acts on a body at an angle
(θ) displacing the body over a distance (d).
W = F.d.cos θ
Both force and displacement are vectors. θ is the angle
between the force vector and the displacement vector.
Work and energy have the same units.
In SI units, work and energy are measured in newton-
meters.
A newton-meter is given the special name joule (J)
1 J = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 kg ⋅ m2 /s2.
One joule of energy is enough to lift a small apple (100-
gram) a distance of about 1 meter.
 WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
Relates the work done by a force to the change in kinetic energy of
an object. It states that the net work done by all the forces acting
on an object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy.

W = ΔKE =​mvf2 ​- ​mvi2​

where W is the net work done on the object
ΔKE is the change in kinetic energy of the object is the mass of the
object
vi​ and vf​are the initial and final velocities of the object, respectively.
 ONE CALORIE

1 Calorie is equal to 1,000 calories or kcal. A calorie is a unit of

measurement for energy. It is defined as the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsius at standard atmospheric pressure. Therefore, one Calorie or
kcal is 1,000 times larger than one calorie.
Example: If a food item has 200 Calories or kcal, it means that it
contains 200,000 calories of energy.
One food calorie (Cal) is equal to 4.184 kilojoules or 4,184
joules of energy. It is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one
degree Celsius. Food calories are commonly used to
measure the energy content of foods and beverages.
Joules: multiply the # of food calories x 4,184.
kcal : divide # of joules /4,184
Example: If an activity burns 836.8 joules of energy, it
means that it burns 0.2 food calories or kcal.
DOT-SCALAR PRODUCT OF
VECTORS
The scalar product of two vectors a and b of magnitude |
a| and |b| is given as |a|b| cos θ, where θ represents
the angle between the vectors a and b taken in the
direction of the vectors.
In the expression : a.b=|a||b| cosθ
|a| and |b| represent the magnitude of the vectors a
and b while cos θ denotes the cosine of the angle between
both the vectors and a.b indicate the dot product of the
two vectors.
 Dot Product Properties of Vector

Dot product of two vectors is commutative.

Example : a.b = b.a = ab cos θ.
The dot product follows the distributive law.
Example : a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c

If a.b = 0 then it suggests that either of the vectors is zero

or they are perpendicular to each other.
Rectangular Perspective - combine x and y components

The goal is to apply one

vector to another. We list out
all four combinations (x with
x, y with x, x with y, y with
y).
Like multiplying complex
numbers, see how each x- and
y-component interacts.
Polar perspective: combine magnitudes and angles

Take two vectors, a and b.

Rotate our coordinates so b is
horizontal: it becomes (|b|, 0).
What's the dot product now?
That is |a|cos(θ), aka the
"projection":

=|
 ANALYSIS
There exists two vectors C and D with the following coordinates
C=(1,5,3) and D=(3,-11,5). Find the angle between the two vectors.
To solve the problem we use polar perspective, the equation is A.B=|A||B|
cos θ Thus, cos θ =
We apply Pythagoras Theorem on each vector.
|C|= +==5.92 |D|= + = =12.45
C.D= 1(3)+5(-11)+3(5) = -37
cos θ = = cos θ = -0.50 θ = (0.50) = 120⁰
 POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done.

P= SI unit : watt ( W )
where 1 watt equals 1 joule/second (1 W = 1 J/s).
Kinetic Energy = Potential Energy = mgh
The work going into mechanical energy is W= KE + PE. At
the bottom of the stairs, we take both KE and PEg as
initially zero; thus, W = KE + PEg = , where h is the
vertical height of the stairs.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
ENERGY
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a device is related to the
amount of stretch - the more stretch, the more stored energy. Springs can
store elastic potential energy due to either compression or stretching.
Elastic potential energy is potential energy stored as a result of
deformation of an elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring. It
is equal to the work done to stretch the spring, which depends upon
the spring constant k as well as the distance stretched.
Potential Energy and Conservative Forces

We define a potential energy (PE) for any

conservative force, just as we did for the
gravitational force. For example, when you
wind up a toy, an egg timer, or an old-
fashioned watch, you do work against its
spring and store energy in it. (We treat these
springs as ideal, in that we assume there is
no friction and no production of thermal
energy.)
This stored energy is recoverable as work, and it is useful to think of it
as potential energy contained in the spring. Indeed, the reason that
the spring has this characteristic is that its force is conservative. That is,
a conservative force results in stored or potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy is one example, as is the energy stored
in a spring.
Equilibrium on a Potential Energy vs. Position Graph

Equilibrium occurs where the force is zero. We now know that the
(negative of) slope of a potential energy vs. position graph is force. The
conclusion is that the equilibrium positions are the positions where
the slope of the potential energy vs. position curve is zero.
EQUILIBRIUM & POTENTIAL
ENERGY
Stable Equilibrium
Stable equilibrium exists if the net force is zero, and small changes in
the system would cause an increase in potential energy.
Unstable Equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium exists if the net force is zero, and small changes in
the system would cause a decrease in potential energy.
Neutral Equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium exists if the net force is zero, and small changes in
the system have no effect on the potential energy.
• The stable equilibrium should be at lower potential then any nearby
point.
• The unstable equilibrium should be at higher potential energy than
any nearby point.
• The neutral equilibrium should have the same potential energy as
nearby points.
Although potential energy is often represented by the expression PE, in
this lesson use the variable U instead; similarly, kinetic energy will be
represented by the variable K.
These energies obey the law of conservation of energy, or ΔU + ΔK = 0.
Center of Mass and Geometric Center

An extended object might change shape as it moves, such as a water

balloon or a cat falling. This implies that the constituent particles are
applying internal forces on each other, in addition to the external force
that is acting on the object as a whole.
In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the
unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed
mass sums to zero.
It is the point at which the object can be balanced.
GEOMETRIC CENTER
In mathematics and physics,
the centroid or geometric
center of a plane figure is
the arithmetic mean
position of all the points in
the figure. Informally, it is
the point at which a cutout
of the shape could be
perfectly balanced on the
tip of a pin.
LINEAR MOMENTUM
Linear momentum has the same direction as the velocity. SI unit for
momentum is kg · m/s . expressed as p = mv. Momentum is directly
proportional to the object’s mass and also its velocity. Thus the greater an
object’s mass or the greater its velocity, the greater its momentum.
If the velocity of the center of mass does not change relation to the Center
of Mass in an isolated system. Therefore the total linear momentum does
not change. Momentum, like energy, is important because it is conserved.
IMPULSE
Impulse is the change in momentum equals the
average net external force multiplied by the time this
force acts.
Δp = FnetΔt
The quantity FnetΔt is given the name impulse.
IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
The states that the impulse applied to an object will be equal to the
change in its momentum. Now we see that the impulse-momentum
theorem shows us how a small net force applied over a long time can
be used to produce the same velocity change as a large net force
applied over a short time.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The dashboard padding in a car, and
certainly the airbags, allow the net force on the occupants in the car to
act over a much longer time when there is a sudden stop. Crumple
zones in the event of a head-on collision. A longer collision time means
the force on the car will be less.
You can relate the impulse with which you hit an object
to its consequent change in momentum.
According to the theorem: J= Δp
GIVEN: mass of ball m = 0.20 kg
velocity of the ball v= 20 m/s
UNKNOWN : Δp = pf-pi = m(vf-v i) J = Δp = pf-pi
EQUATION : Δp = pf-pi = m(vf-v i) J = Δp = pf-pi
SUBSTITUTE : Δp = = m(vf-vi) =(0.200 kg)(2.0 m/s-0.0 m/s) = 0.40
kg.m/s
SOLUTION: = 0.40 kg.m/s
You need a change in momentum of 0.40 kilogram-meters per second,
which is also the impulse you need because J=FΔt hence impulse is FΔt =
0.40 kg m/s

Therefore, the force you need to apply works out to be F

Impulse is the product of the average net force acting on an object and
its duration.
In this equation, the time your cue ball is in contact with the ball is 5
milliseconds, or 5.0 x10-3 seconds.
Plug in the time to find the force:
COLLISIONS
Occur when one object strikes another. Problems involving
collisions are usually solved using conservation of
momentum and conservation of energy
There are two types of collisions:
• Inelastic collisions: momentum is conserved,
• Elastic collisions: momentum is conserved and kinetic energy
is conserved.
ELASTIC COLLISION
An elastic collision is a collision in which there is no net loss in
kinetic energy in the system as a result of the collision. Both
momentum and kinetic energy are conserved quantities in
elastic collisions.
Suppose two similar trolleys are traveling toward each other
with equal speed. They collide, bouncing off each other with
no loss in speed. This collision is perfectly elastic because no
energy has been lost.
INELASTIC COLLISION
An inelastic collision is a collision in which there is a loss of kinetic
energy. While momentum of the system is conserved in an inelastic
collision, kinetic energy is not. This is because some kinetic energy had
been transferred to something else. Thermal energy, sound energy,
and material deformation are likely culprits.
Suppose two similar trolleys are traveling towards each other. They
collide, but because the trolleys are equipped with magnetic couplers
they join together in the collision and become one connected mass.
This type of collision is perfectly inelastic because the maximum
possible kinetic energy has been lost. This doesn't mean that the final
kinetic energy is necessarily zero; momentum must still be conserved.
Sample Problem
Two billiard balls collide. Ball 1 moves with a velocity of 6 m/s, and ball 2 is at
rest. After the collision, ball 1 comes to a complete stop. What is the velocity of
ball 2 after the collision? Is this collision elastic or inelastic? The mass of each
ball is 0.20 kg.
Solution:
To find the velocity of ball 2, use a momentum table as follows.
Objects Momentum Before Momentum After
Ball 1 0.20 kg × 6 m/s = 1.2 0
Ball 2 0 0.20 kg × v2
Total 1.2 kg × m/s 0.20 kg × v2

1.2 kg × m/s = 0.20 kg × v2

v2 =1.2 /0.20 = 6 m/s
To determine whether the collision is elastic or inelastic, calculate the
total kinetic energy of the system both before and after the collision.

Objects KE Before (J) KE After (J)

Ball 1 0.50 × 0.20 × 62 = 3.6 0
Ball 2 0 0.50 × 0.20 × 62 = 3.6
Total 3.6 3.6

Since the kinetic energy before the collision is equal to the kinetic
energy after the collision (kinetic energy is conserved), this is an
elastic collision.
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
The ratio of final velocity to the initial velocity between two
objects after their collision is known as the coefficient of
restitution.
The coefficient of restitution is important because it is what
determines whether a collision is elastic or inelastic in nature.
Determining whether a collision is elastic or not shows if there
is any form of loss of kinetic energy as a result of the collision.