MIGRATION

CONTENTS

• Migration as a component of
population change
• Internal Migration
• International migration
• A case study of international
migration
MIGRATION AS A
COMPONENT OF
POPULATION
CHANGE
• MOVEMENT OF POPULATIONS:
DEFINITIONS
• CAUSES OF MIGRATIONS
• RECENT APPROACHES TO MIGRATION
• THE ROLE OF CONSTRAINTS,
OBSTACLES, AND BARRIERS
MOVEMENT OF POPULATIONS:
DEFINITIONS
The corresponding terms for
internal movements are in-
migration and out-migration.
Net migration = in-migration –
out migration. The terms
immigration & emigration are
used with reference to
international immigration.
E.S. Lee’s model shows (Figure 1)
that migrations are embarked from
an area of origin and are
completed at an area of
destination. However, there are
intervening obstacles and
opportunities between points of
origin and destinations.
Migration stream occurs if
migrants share a common origin and
destination. For every migration
stream, a counter-stream or reverse
flow usually occurs.
Push and pull factors encourage
people to migrate. Push factors =
negative factors at the area of
origin; pull factors = positive
factors at the destination
A basic distinction is between
voluntary and forced migration.
Voluntary migration = free choice
to move; forced migration = no
choice but move.
CAUSES OF
MIGRATION
W. PETERSON (1958)

In 1958, W. Peterson noted the following

5 migratory types:
• Primitive migration (1)
• Forced migration (2)
• Impelled migration (3)
• Free migration and mass migration
(4)
(1) nomadic pastoralism and shifting cultivation practiced by the world’s
most traditional societies.
(2) the abduction and transport of Africans to the Americas as slaves was the
largest forced migration in history. Migrations may also be forced by natural
disaster.
(3) Takes place under perceived threat, either human or physical, but an
element of choice remains (lacking in forced migration
(4) Both involve freedom of choice. The distinction is one of magnitude
only. The movement of Europeans to North America was the largest mass
migration in history.
SYSTEM APPROACH
FOR MIGRATION

• Developed by Akin Mabogunje

in his analysis of rural-urban
migration in Africa
• Shows migration as a circular,
interdependent and self-
modifying system. The system
and the environment act and
react upon each other
continuously
 RECENT
APPROACHES TO
MIGRATION
THE TODARO MODEL: THE COST &
BENEFIT APPROACH

•Many rural dwellers in rural-urban migrations are

attracted by the “bright lights” of the large urban areas
without any clear understanding of the real deprivation
of urban life
•Michael Todaro challenged this view, arguing that
migrants’ perception of urban life are realistic, being
strongly based on an accurate flow of information from
earlier migrants.
•They were very aware that in the short term they might
not be better off, but weighing up the odds the
likelihood was that their socio-economic standing would
improve in long term.
STARK’S “NEW ECONOMICS OF
MIGRATION”

• Stark extended the Todaro model by

replacing the individual with the household
as the unit of analysis.
• Migration, according to Stark, is seen as a
form of economic diversification by
families whereby the costs and rewards
area shared.
• It is a form of risk spreading.
MARXIST/STRUCTURALIST
THEORY
• Some writers, often in the tradition of Marxist
analysis, see labor migration as inevitable in
the transition to capitalism
• Migration is the only option for survival after
alienation from the land
• Structuralist theory draws attention to the
advantages of migrant labor for capitalist
production and emphasizes the control that
capitalism has over migrant labor
 STRUCTURATION THEORY
& GENDER ANALYSIS

• Incorporates both individual • Gender has come to occupy a

motives for migration and the significant place in migration
structural factors which migrants literature
operate • There is now much more
• It stresses that rules designed to emphasis on the different
regulate behavior also provide migration responses by men and
opportunity and room for women and on gender
maneuver for those they seek to discrimination
constrain
• This approach also builds in an
awareness of cultural factors
CASE STUDY

PUSH AND PULL

FA C T O R S I N
BRAZIL
 MIGRATION IN BRAZIL (1950)

Push factors Pull factors

The mechanization of agriculture, which has reduced the A greater likelihood of paid employment, even if only in
demand for farm labor the informal sector
The amalgamation of farms and estates, particularly by Greater proximity to health and education services; this
agricultural production companies, resulting in a high factor is particularly important for migrants with
level of rural-urban migration children
The generally poor conditions of rural employment Better housing opportunities; even favela housing may
be better than that found in some rural areas
Desertification in the northeast and deforestation in the Greater access to retail services than in rural areas
north
Unemployment and underemployment The cultural and social attractions of large cities
Poor social conditions, particularly in terms of housing, Access to internet services, often lacking in rural areas;
health, and education this is an important factor for younger migrants
 CONSTRAINTS, OBSTACLES,
AND BARRIERS
• No legal restrictions on internal • The consideration of
migration, but there are major DISTANCE usually involves
barrier in international the dangers associated with the
migration. The main constraints journey
for internal migration are • In terms of international
DISTANCE & COST
migration, the immigration
• The economic costs of laws usually present the most
migration can be viewed in formidable barrier to
three parts: prospective migrants
• ‘closing up’ at the point of
origin
• the actual cost of
movement itself
• the costs of ‘opening up’ at
the point of destination
MIGRATION DATA

Population censuses Population register Specific surveys

• Taken at regular • Inhabitants are • Supplement the
intervals and cover required to register an sources of data
whole countries address with the police discussed above
• The 2 sorts of data or a civic authority
generally provided and to notify all
• Birthplaces changes of residence
• Migration figures
INTERNAL MIGRATION
• As cost is a significant factor in the
distance over which migration takes
place, the relative distance of
movements may have a filtering effect
upon the kinds of people who are
moving between areas
• In terms of direction the most
prevalent forms of migration in
developing countries are rural to
urban environments and from
peripheral regions to economic core
regions
• Although of a lesser magnitude, rural-
rural migration is common in the
developing world for a variety of
reasons including employment, family
reunion, and marriage.
CAUSES OF INTERNAL MIGRATION

MACRO-LEVEL MESO-LEVEL MICRO-LEVEL

DIMENSION DIMENSION DIMENSION
 MACRO-LEVEL
DIMENSION
• Highlights socio-economic origins during that time
differences at the national • Post-colonial era, LICs have
scale. Emphasize on the core- looked to industrialization as
periphery concept their path to development,
• In LICs/MICs during colonial which leads to a high level of
time, migration was rural-urban migration because
encouraged to supply labor for of disproportional investment
new colonial enterprises and in urban area and relative
infrastructural projects. This is neglect in rural area
why the development of core
regions in LICs/MICs had its
 MESO-LEVEL
DIMENSION
• Includes more detailed consideration of the factors at
origins and destinations that influence people’s
migration decisions.
• The economic motive is the cause of most rural-urban
movements, not just high population growth. Its
effects must be seen in conjunction with the failure of
provide the needs in rural communities. Michael
Todaro is the first to recognized this cause
• Other factors, particularly social environment, have a
very strong influence on the direction that the
movement takes
MICRO-LEVEL DIMENSION
This level stresses that the specific circumstances of individual
families and communities in terms of urban contract area of
crucial importance in the decision to move, particularly when
long distances are involved

The importance of established links between urban and rural

areas frequently results in the phenomenon of chain
migration

Chain migration occurs when one or small number of

pioneering migrants have led the way in rural-urban
migration, and others from the same rural communities
follow.
Apart from contact with, and knowledge of,
urban locations, differentiation between rural
households in terms of migration takes the
following term:
• Level of income
• Size of land holding
• Size of household
• Stage in the life cycle
• Level of education
• Cohesiveness of the family unit
THE IMPACTS OF INTERNAL
MIGRATION
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
IMPACT
• This image highlighting the
two-way transfers of labor,
money, skills and attitudes
• Remittances from internal
migration are an important
source of money for rural areas
• However, the flow of money
and support in general is not
always one way.
The relationship between migration and development is
complex and still the subject of much debate:
• Migrants do move in reaction to newly developed
opportunities
• However, people in the poorest areas of developing
countries don’t exhibit the highest levels of out-
migration. Levels of literacy and skill may be so low
that access to even every menial urban jobs may be
difficult
• Development in rural areas of origin often act as a
stimulus to out-migration, widening the horizon of a
significant number among the rural population.
• Rural migrants are often the most dynamic young adults
from their communities and should be of benefit to the
receiving urban areas providing enough opportunities
are available for most to gain reasonable employment.
• The impact of out-migration on areas of origin is
not at all clear. The traditional view has been that
by reducing unemployment & underemployment
and providing inputs such as remittances and
newly acquired skills
• Migration provides development, narrows
regional disparities and eventually makes
migration unnecessary
• However, such mobility may have an adverse
effect on the economy of labor-exporting areas.
An important issue is the impact of out-migration
on local agriculture
 POLITICAL IMPACT
Several political repercussions caused by internal migration at
a significant scale:
• Lower political representation occurs where migration
results in depopulation
• In contrast, when population is growing rapidly, partly at
least because of in-migration, the political voice of such
regions will become more important
• Internal migration can significantly change the ethnic
composition of a region or urban area, which may result in
tension. In fact, some countries’ governments have been
accused of deliberately using internal migration to change
the ethnic balance of a region. For example, the occupation
of Tibet by the Chinese governments in 1950
 ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
• Large scale rural-urban migration has led to
massive expansion of many urban areas in MICs &
LICs, which has swallowed up farmland, forests,
floodplains and other areas of ecological
importance
• In turn, the increased impact of these enlarged
urban areas is affecting environments even further
afield in a variety of different ways. These include
deforestation, demand for water and other
resources, pollution, and the expansion of landfill
sites
 IMPACT ON POPULATION STRUCTURES

• The age-selective (and often gender-selective) nature of

migration can have a very significant impact on both
areas of origin and destination
• Population pyramids for rural areas in developing
countries frequently show the loss of young adults (and
their children) and may also show a distinct difference
between the number of males and females in the young
adult age group due to a greater number of males than
females leaving rural areas for urban destinations
• However, in some rural areas, female out-migration may
be at a higher level than male out-migration. The reverse
situation is frequently true for urban areas
URBAN-URBAN MIGRATION
 STEPPED MIGRATION

• During the initial move from a rural

environment to a relatively small urban area,
migrants may develop skills and increase
their knowledge of, and confidence in, urban
environments.
• They may become aware of better
employment opportunities in larger urban
areas and develop personal contacts that can
be so important in the migration process
THREE WAYS STEPPED MIGRATION MAY
OCCUR
 STEPPED MIGRATION (2)

• Another important form of urban-urban

migration is from town sand cities in economic
periphery areas to urban areas in the economic
core
• An example is Brazil, with significant movement
in the past 50 years from urban areas in the
relatively poor northeast such as Recife and
Salvador
 CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF INTRA-
URBAN MOVEMENTS
• Demographic analysis shows that movements of population within cities are
closely related to stages in the family life cycle, with the available housing
stock being a major determinant of where people live at different stages in
their life.
• Studies in the UK have highlighted the spatial contrasts in life cycle between
middle and low-income groups. While life cycle and income become a major
determinants of where people live, residential patterns are also influenced by
a range of organizations, including local authorities, housing associations,
building societies and landowners
• On top of this, the choice available to the household. For those on low
income this is frequently very restricted. Housing type and location increases
as income rises
COUNTER URBANIZATION
• First became clear in the USA in the 1970s and since then the most countries
of Western Europe as well as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Japan
have followed suit.
• There has been much debate about the causes of counter-urbanization. The
most plausible explanations are as follows:
• The ‘period’ explanation: role of peculiar economic and demographic circumstances in
the 70s
• The ‘regional restructuring’: role of new organization of production, the changing
spatial division of labor and the increasing importance of service industries
• The’ de-concentration’: the lowering of institutional and technological barriers to rural
location
• While all explanations have their merits, the 3rd factor is the most important
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
VOLUNTARY
MIGRATION
• It has been a major global issue. In the past it has had
huge impact on both donor & receiving nations. Even
though it has been generally beneficial for the
receiving countries, today these countries tend to favor
a large influx of outsiders for many reasons
• Currently, about 3% of the world’s population live
outside the country of their birth. This amounts to
about 213 million people, higher than before
• Globalization has led to an increased awareness of
opportunities in other countries. Each receiving
countries has its own sources of migration – the results
of historical, economic, and geographical relationship
 RECENT DATA

• With the growth in the importance of labor-related

migration and international student mobility, migration has
become increasingly temporary and circular in nature
• The spatial impact of migration has spread, with an
increasing number of countries affected either as points of
origin or destination
• The proportion of female migrants has steadily increased
(now over 47%)
• The great majority of international migrants from
developed countries go to other affluent nations
• Developed countries have reinforced controls, partly in
response to security issues, but also to combat illegal
immigration
 FORCED MIGRATION
• These conflicts have led to numerous population movements
of a significant scale. Not all have crossed international
frontiers to merit the term refugee movements. Instead,
many have involved internal displacement. This is a major
global problem, which is showing little sign of abatement.
• Many parts of the developing world are prone to natural
disasters, because they have no funds to minimize the
consequences of natural disasters. Ecological an
environmental change is a common cause of human
displacement.
• Increasingly large numbers of people have been displaced
by major infrastructural projects and by the commercial
sector’s huge appetite for and. It is predicted by 2050 that
200 million people will be displaced because of climate
change.
A few trends appear to have contributed to the growing
scale and speed of forced displacement
• The emergence of new forms of warfare involving the
destruction of whole social, economic, and political
systems.
• The spread of light weapons and land mines, available
at prices that enable whole populations to be armed.
• The use of mass evictions and expulsions as a weapon
of war and as a means of establishing culturally and
ethnically homogenous societies. The term ‘ethnic
cleansing’ is commonly used to describe this process
IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Socio-economic Cultural Political Environmental

• Sharp rise in the • Shape the global • Affect votes for • Still debatable
number of cultural map by politicians or a between
people assimilation of political tension geographers and
migrating for immigrants and between demographers
work national's countries
• Value and culture
source of
remittances
• Social
assimilation
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT
• Recent studies have stressed the sharp rise in the number of
people migrating to the world’s richest countries for work, either
temporary or permanent workers and across all employment
categories.
• Factors that influence the regional destination of immigrants into
OECD countries are:
• The extent of economic opportunities
• The presence of family members or others of the same ethnic
region
• The point of entry into the country
• The socio-economic status of OECD immigrants is frequently.
Immigrants are more likely to:
• be unemployed compared with nationals,
• have ‘3D’ jobs,
• over-represented in construction, hospitality and catering, and
• The value of remittances has increased
considerably over the past 20 years. It has
been described as ‘globalization bottom-
up’.
• Remittances can form a positive multiplier
effect in donor countries
• The social assimilation usually follows
economic assimilation. As barrier decline,
the benefits starts to rise. The impact on
donor country is considerable. This tends
to occur in 2 stages. One, initial loss of
many of its most dynamic individuals.
Two, new ideas from the adopted country
filter back to home country, often clashing
with traditional values
CULTURAL IMPACT
• Migration has played a major role in shaping the global
cultural map. The old colonial powers have relatively
cosmopolitan populations compared with most of their
non-colonial counterparts as significant numbers of
people from former colonies have sought a higher
standard of living in the ‘mother’ country. Significant
diaspora populations have been established in many
developed countries, resulting in growing cultural
hybridity
• An example is the enlargement of the EU in 2004 to
include Eastern European countries such as Poland. In
the USA, the large inflow of migrants from Latin
America has resulted in a substantial increase in the
proportions of Spanish speakers
 POLITICAL IMPACT
• Significant levels of international migration can have a
considerable political impact both within and between
countries. In many countries, immigrant shows a clear
interest to votes for parties or politicians that they prefer
• Over time, immigrants gradually assimilate into host
societies. Economic, social, and then political assimilation
is the general pattern. When immigrants reach a certain
size, they begin to develop their own politicians to oppose
those from host society
• High levels of international migration between one
country and another can lead to political tension. For
example, the high level of Mexican migration into the
USA leads to serious political tension between the US &
Mexican government
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
• In an article entitled ‘The environmental
argument for reducing immigration to
the US’, Staples & Cafaro explain how
population growth contributes
significantly to a host of environmental
problems in the USA
• They argue that a growing population
increases the USA’s large environmental
footprint beyond its borders and its
disproportionate role in stressing global
environmental systems.
THANK YOU
Matthew Alvin Millen Hasianta, S.T.
[email protected]
082111266006
@matthewalvin56