Introduction

Introduction
to
to
DSL
DSL

Yaakov J. Stein
Chief Scientist
RAD Data Communications
Stein Intro DSL 1
PSTN

Stein Intro DSL 2

 Original PSTN

UTP UTP

Manual switching directly connected two local loops

Due to microphone technology, audio BW was 4 kHz

Stein Intro DSL 3

 Analog switched PSTN

Invention of tube amplifier enabled long distance

Between central offices used FDM spaced at 4 kHz
(each cable carrying 1 group = 12 channels)

Developed into hierarchical network of automatic switches

(with supergroups, master groups, supermaster groups)

Stein Intro DSL 4

 Data supported via
voice-grade modems

UTP

modem modem
To send data, it is converted into 4 kHz audio (modem)
Data rate is determined by Shannon's capacity theorem
•there is a maximum data rate (bps) called the "capacity"
that can be reliably sent through the communications channel
•the capacity depends on the BW and SNR
In Shannon's days it worked out to about 25 kbps
today it is about 35 kbps (V.34 modem - 33.6 kbps)
Stein Intro DSL 5
 Digital PSTN
CO SWITCH
“last mile”

TDM

analog PSTN digital

“last mile” TDM

Subscriber Line

CO SWITCH

LP filter to 4 kHz at input to CO switch (before A/D)

Stein Intro DSL 6

 Digital PSTN
Sample 4 kHz audio at 8 kHz (Nyquist)
Need 8 bits per sample = 64 kbps
Multiplexing 64 kbps channels leads to higher and higher rates

Only the subscriber line (local loop) remains analog

(too expensive to replace)

Can switch (cross connect) large number of channels

Noise and distortion could be eliminated due to

Shannon's theorems
1. Separation theorem
2. Source coding theorem
3. Channel capacity theorem

Stein Intro DSL 7

 Voice-grade modems
still work over new PSTN

CO SWITCH
PSTN

UTP subscriber line

modem
CO SWITCH

But data rates do not increase !

modem Simulate analog channel so can achieve
network/
Shannon rate < native 64 kbps rate
ISP

Internet router

Stein Intro DSL 8

 ? Where is the limitation

The digital network was developed incrementally

No forklift upgrades to telephones, subscriber lines, etc.
Evolutionary deployment meant that the new network needed
to simulate pre-existing analog network

So a 4 kHz analog channel is presented to subscriber

The 4 kHz limitation is enforced by LP filter
at input to CO switch (before 8 kHz sampling)

The actual subscriber line is not limited to 4 kHz

Is there a better way

to use the subscriber line for digital transmissions ?

Stein Intro DSL 9

UTP

Stein Intro DSL 10

 What is UTP?
The achievable data rate is limited by physics of the subscriber line

The subscriber line is an Unshielded Twisted Pair of copper wires

 Two plastic insulated copper wires
 Two directions over single pair
 Twisted to reduce crosstalk
 Supplies DC power and audio signal
 Physically, UTP is
– distributed resistances in series
– distributed inductances in series
– distributed capacitances in parallel
so the attenuation increases with frequency
 Various other problems exist (splices, loading coils, etc.)
Stein Intro DSL 11
 UTP characteristics
 Resistance per unit distance
 Capacitance per unit distance
 Inductance per unit distance
 Cross-admittance (assume pure reactive) per unit distance
X

R L

G C

Stein Intro DSL 12

 UTP resistance
Influenced by gauge, copper purity, temperature

Resistance is per unit distance

 24 gauge 0.15 kft
 26 gauge 0.195 kft

Skin effect: Resistance increases with frequency

1/2
Theoretical result R~f

In practice this is a good approximation

Stein Intro DSL 13

 UTP capacitance
Capacitance depends on interconductor insulation

About 15.7 nF per kft

Only weakly dependent on gauge

Independent of frequency to high degree

Stein Intro DSL 14

 UTP inductance
Higher for higher gauge

24 gauge 0.188 mH per kft

26 gauge 0.205 mH per kft

Constant below about 10 kHz

Drops slowly above

Stein Intro DSL 15

 UTP admittance
Insulation good so no resistive admittance

Admittance due to capacitive and inductive coupling

Self-admittance can usually be neglected

Cross admittance causes cross-talk!

Stein Intro DSL 16

 Propagation loss
Voltage decreases as travel along cable

Each new section of cable reduces voltage by a factor

1v 1/2 v 1/4 v

So the decrease is exponential

Va / Vb = e - x = H(f,x)
where x is distance between points a and b

We can calculate  and hence loss,

directly from RCLG model

Stein Intro DSL 17

Attenuation vs. frequency
24 and 26 AWG Cables
0

-10

-20
Attenuation [dB/Km]

-30

-40
24 AWG
-50

-60
26 AWG
-70

-80

-90
0 2 4 6 8 10
Freq [MHz]

Stein Intro DSL 18

 Why twisted?

from Alexander Graham Bell’s 1881 patent

To place the direct and return lines close together.

To twist the direct and return lines around one another so that
they
should be absolutely equidistant
n from the disturbing wires
a
V = (a+n) - (b+n)
b

Stein Intro DSL 19

 Why twisted? - continued
So don't need shielding, at least for audio (low) frequencies
But at higher frequencies UTP has cross-talk
George Cambell was the first to model (see BSTJ 14(4) Oct 1935)

b
L bc L ad
C bc C bd

Cross-talk due to capacitive and/or inductive mismatch

|I2| = Q f V1 where Q ~ (Cbc-Cbd) or Q~(Lbc-Lad)

Stein Intro DSL 20

 Loading coils
Long loops have loading coils to prevent voice distortion
What does a loading coil do?

Flattens response in voice band

Attenuates strongly above voice frequencies
loops longer than 18 kft need loading coils
88 mH every 6kft starting 3kft
Stein Intro DSL 21
 Bridge taps
There may also be bridged taps

Parallel run of unterminated UTP

 unused piece left over from old installation

 placed for subscriber flexibility

High frequency signals are reflected from the open end

A bridged tap can act like a notch filter!

Stein Intro DSL 22

 Other problems
Splices
Subscriber lines are seldom single runs of cable
In the US, UTP usually comes in 500 ft lengths
So splices must be made every 500 ft
Average line has >20 splices
Splices are pressure connections that add to attenuation
Over time they corrode and may spark, become intermittent, etc.

Gauge changes
US binder groups typically start off at 26 AWG
Change to 24 AWG after 10 kft
In rural areas they may change to 19 AWG after that

Stein Intro DSL 23

 Binder groups
UTP are not placed under/over ground individually

In central offices they are in cable bundles

with 100s of other UTP

In the outside plant they are in binder groups

with 25 or 50 pairs per group

We will see that these pairs interfere with each other

a phenomenon called cross-talk (XTALK)

Stein Intro DSL 24

 CSA guidelines
1981 AT&T Carrier Service Area guidelines
advise as follows for new deployments
 No loading coils

 Maximum of 9 kft of 26 gauge (including bridged taps)

 Maximum of 12 kft of 24 gauge (including bridged taps)

 Maximum of 2.5 kft bridged taps

 Maximum single bridged tap 2 kft

 Suggested: no more than 2 gauges

In 1991 more than 60% of US lines met CSA requirements

Stein Intro DSL 25

 Present US PSTN
UTP only in the last mile (subscriber line)
 70% unloaded < 18kft
 15% loaded > 18kft
 15% optical or digital to remote terminal + DA (distribution area)

PIC, 19, 22, 24, 26 gauge

Built for 2W 4 KHz audio bandwidth
DC used for powering
Above 100KHz:
 severe attenuation
 cross-talk in binder groups (25 - 1000 UTP)
 lack of intermanufacturer consistency

Stein Intro DSL 26

 Present US PSTN - continued
We will see, that for DSL - basically four cases
 Resistance design > 18Kft loaded line - no DSL possible
 Resistance design unloaded <18 Kft <1300  - ADSL
 CSA reach - HDSL
 DA (distribution area) 3-5 kft - VDSL

Higher rate - lower reach

(because of attenuation and noise!)

Stein Intro DSL 27

xDSL

Stein Intro DSL 28

Alternatives for data services
Fiber, coax, HFC
COST: $10k-$20k / mile
TIME: months to install

T1/E1
COST: >$5k/mile for conditioning
TIME: weeks to install

DSL
COST: 0 (just equipment price)
TIME:  0 (just setup time)

Stein Intro DSL 29

 xDSL
Need higher speed digital connection to subscribers

Not feasible to replace UTP in the last mile

Older voice grade modems assume 4kHz analog line

Newer (V.90) modems assume 64kbps digital line

DSL modems don’t assume anything

Use whatever the physics of the UTP allows

Stein Intro DSL 30

 xDSL System Reference Model

Analog CO SWITCH
modem PSTN
POTS-C POTS-R

network/
ISP POTS
UTP POTS
SPLITTER SPLITTER PDN

router DSLAM xTU-R

WAN xTU-C

x = H, A, V, ...

POTS xDSL
frequency
DC 4 kHz
Stein Intro DSL 31
 Splitter

Splitter separates POTS from DSL signals

 Must guarantee lifeline POTS services!

 Hence usually passive filter

 Must block impulse noise (e.g. ring) from phone into DSL

ADSLforum/T1E1.4 specified that splitter be separate from modem

No interface specification (but can buy splitter and modem from different vendors)

Splitter requires installation

 Costly technician visit is the major impediment to deployment

 ADSL has splitterless versions to facilitate residential deployment

Stein Intro DSL 32

 Why is DSL better
than a voice-grade modem?
Analog telephony modems are limited to 4 KHz bandwidth
Shannon’s channel capacity theorem
gives the maximum transfer rate

N
S for SNR >> 1
C = BW log2 ( SNR + 1 ) C(bits/Hz)  SNR(dB) / 3

So by using more BW we can get higher transfer rates!

But what is the BW of UTP?

Stein Intro DSL 33

 Maximum reach
To use Shannon's capacity theorem
we need to know how much noise there is

One type of noise that is always present

(above absolute zero temperature) is thermal noise

Maximum reach is the length of cable for reliable communications

ASSUMING ONLY THERMAL NOISE

Bellcore study in residential areas (NJ) found

 -140 dBm / Hz
 white (i.e. independent of frequency)
is a good approximation

We can compute the maximum reach from known UTP attenuation

Stein Intro DSL 34

xDSL - Maximum Reach
DSL MAXIMUM REACH
6

4
Reach[Km]

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Rate[Mbps]

Stein Intro DSL 35

 Other sources of noise

But real systems have other sources of noise,

and thus the SNR will be lower
and thus will have lower reach

There are three other commonly encountered types of noise

 RF ingress
 Near End Cross Talk (NEXT)
 Far End Cross Talk (FEXT)

Stein Intro DSL 36

Sources of Interference

XMTR RCVR
RCVR XMTR
FEXT
NEXT THERMAL
NOISE

RCVR XMTR
XMTR RCVR

RF INGRESS

Stein Intro DSL 37

 Unger’s discovery
What happens with multiple sources of cross-talk?
Unger (Bellcore) : 1% worst case NEXT (T1D1.3 185-244)
 50 pair binders
 22 gauge PIC
 18 Kft

Found empirically that cross-talk only increases as N0.6

This is because extra interferers must be further away

Stein Intro DSL 38

 NEXT
Only close points are important
 Distant points are twice attenuated by line attenuation |H(f,x)|2

Unger dependence on number of interferers

Frequency dependence


Transfer function ~ I2Campbell / R ~ f 2 / f 1/2 = f 3/2

 Power spectrum of transmission

Total NEXT interference (noise power)

KNEXT N0.6 f 3/2 PSD(f)

Stein Intro DSL 39

 FEXT
Entire parallel distance important
 Thus there will be a linear dependence on L

Unger dependence on number of interferers

Frequency dependence
 Transfer function ~ I2Campbell ~ f 2

 Power spectrum of transmission

Total FEXT interference (noise power)

KFEXT N0.6 L f2 |Hchannel(f)|2 PSD(f)

Stein Intro DSL 40

Example - Interference spectrum
ISDN NEXT, AM INGRESS, SELF FEXT
0

-20

-40

-60
Interference [dBm/Hz]

-80

-100

-120

-140

-160

-180

-200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Freq [MHz]

Stein Intro DSL 41

 Examples of Realistic Reach

More realistic design goals (splices, some xtalk)

 1.5 Mbps 18 Kft 5.5 km (80% US loops)

 2 Mbps 16 Kft 5 km
 6 Mbps 12 Kft 3.5 km (CSA 50% US loops)
 10 Mbps 7 Kft 2 km
 13 Mbps 4.5 Kft 1.4 km
 26 Mbps 3 Kft 900 m
 52 Mbps 1 Kft 300 m (SONET STS-1 = 1/3 STM-1)

Stein Intro DSL 42

 Bonding (inverse mux)
If we need more BW than attainable by Shannon bounds
we can use more than one UTP pair (although XT may reduce)

This is called bonding or inverse multiplexing

There are many ways of using multiple pairs:
 ATM - extension of IMA (may be different rates per pair)

ATM cells marked with SID and sent on any pair

 Ethernet - based on 802.3(EFM)
frames are fragmented, marked with SN, and sent on many pairs
 Time division inverse mux
 Dynamic Spectral Management (Cioffi)
 Ethernet link aggregation

Stein Intro DSL 43

 Duplexing
Up to now we assumed that only one side transmits
Bidirectional (full duplex) transmission
requires some form of duplexing
For asymmetric applications we usually speak of
DS downstream and US upstream

Four methods are in common use:

 Half duplex mode (4W mode) (as in E1/T1)

 Echo cancellation mode (ECH)

 Time Domain Duplexing (requires syncing all binder contents)

 Frequency Domain Duplexing

POTS US DS
frequency
DC 4 kHz
Stein Intro DSL 44
 Muxing, inverse muxing, duplexing
inverse
multiplexing
multiplexing

data streams physical line data stream physical lines

Duplexing = 2 data streams in 2 directions on 1 physical line

Multiplexing = N data streams in 1 direction on 1 physical line
Inverse multiplexing = 1 data stream in 1 direction on N physical lines

duplexing

Stein Intro DSL 45

 (Adaptive) echo cancellation
Signal transmitted is known to transmitter

It is delayed, attenuated and distorted in the round-trip

Using adaptive DSP algorithms we can

 find the delay/attenuation/distortion
 subtract

modulator

4W to 2W

HYBRID

demodulator

Stein Intro DSL 46

xDSL types
and
history

Stein Intro DSL 47

 DSL Flavors

DSL is often called xDSL

since there are many varieties (different x)
e.g. ADSL, HDSL, SHDSL, VDSL, IDSL, etc.

There were once many unconnected types

but now we divide them into three main families

The differentiation is by means of the application scenario

 HDSL (symmetric, mainly business, data + telephony)

 ADSL (asymmetric, mainly residential, Internet access)

 VDSL (very high rate, but short distance)

Stein Intro DSL 48

PSD(dBm/Hz)
Some xDSL PSDs
-30
T1
IDSL HDSL HDSL2
-40
ADSL

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90 F(MHz)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Stein Intro DSL 49

 ITU G.99x standards
 G.991 HDSL (G.991.1 HDSL G.991.2 SHDSL)
 G.992 ADSL (G.992.1 ADSL G.992.2 splitterless ADSL
G.992.3 ADSL2 G.992.4 splitterless ADSL2
G.992.5 ADSL2+)
 G.993 VDSL (G.993.1 VDSL G.993.2 VDSL2)

 G.994 HANDSHAKE
 G.995 GENERAL (INFO)
 G.996 TEST
 G.997 PLOAM
 G.998 bonding (G.998.1 ATM G.998.2 Ethernet G.998.3 TDIM)

Stein Intro DSL 50

 ITU xDSL layer model
 Transport protocol (ATM, STM, PTM)
 Transport Protocol Specific - Transmission Convergence (TPS-TC)
 Physical Medium Specific - Transmission Convergence (PMS-TC)
 Physical Medium Dependent (PMD)
 Physical medium

Stein Intro DSL 51

 More xDSL flavors
modem speed reach main applications

IDSL 160 (144) Kbps 5.5 km POTS

replacement,
videoconferencing,
Internet access
HDSL 2 Mbps (4-6W) 3.6-4.5 km T1/E1 replacement
PBX interconnect,
FR
HDSL2 2 Mbps (2W) 3 km same as HDSL

SHDSL 2.3 Mbps 3 km same as HDSL

SHDSLbis 4.6 Mbps 3 km same as HDSL

Stein Intro DSL 52

 More xDSL flavors (cont.)
modem speed reach main applications

ADSL 6 Mbps DS 3.5-5.5 km residential Internet,

640 Kbps US video-on-demand
ADSL2 8 Mbps DS > ADSL Internet access,
800 Kbps US VoIP
ADSL2+ 16 Mbps DS < 2 km “
800 Kbps US
VDSL <= 52 Mbps 300m - 1 km LAN interconnect,
HDTV,
combined services
VDSL2 200 Mbps up to 1.8 km “
(aggregate)
cable modem 10-30Mbps DS 50 km residential Internet
Not shared
DSL HPNA 1, 10 Mbps home wiring residential
networking

Stein Intro DSL 53

 T1 service (not DSL)
1963: Coax deployment of T1
 2 groups in digital TDM
 AMI line code
 Beyond CSA range should use DLC (direct loop carrier)
 Repeaters every 6 Kft
 Made possible by Bell Labs invention of the transistor

1971: UTP deployment of T1 (but still not DSL)

 Bring 1.544 Mbps to customer private lines
 Use two UTP in half duplex mode
 Requires expensive line conditioning
 One T1 per binder group

Stein Intro DSL 54

 T1 line conditioning
In order for a subscriber’s line to carry T1
 Single gauge

 CSA range

 No loading coils

 No bridged taps

 Repeaters every 6 Kft (starting 3 Kft)

 One T1 per binder group

 Labor intensive (expensive) process

 Need something better … (DSL)

Stein Intro DSL 55

 The first true xDSL!
1984,88: IDSL
 BRI access for ISDN

 4B3T (3 level PAM) or 2B1Q (4 level PAM) modulation

 Prevalent in Europe, never really caught on in US

 144 Kbps over CSA range

ITU-T G.961 describes IDSL

There are 4 appendices:
 Appendix I - 4B3T (AKA MMS43)
 Appendix II - 2B1Q
 Appendix III - AMI Time Compression Multiplex (TDD)
 Appendix IV - SU32 (3B2T + ECH)

Stein Intro DSL 56

 HDSL - NA improved copy of IDSL

1991: HDSL
 Replaced T1/E1 service, but

– full CSA distance w/o line conditioning / repeaters

 AMI line code replaced with IDSL's 2B1Q line code

 Use 2 UTP pairs, but in ECH mode (DFE)

– For T1 784 kbps on each pair
– For E1, 1, 2, 3 and 4 pair modes (all ECH)
 Requires DSP for echo cancellation

 Mature DSL technology, now becoming obsolete

Stein Intro DSL 57

 HDSL2
With the success of HDSL,
customers requested HDSL service that would :
 require only a single UTP HDSL

 attain at least full CSA reach

 be spectrally compatible w/ HDSL, T1, ADSL, etc.

The result, based on high order PAM, was called

 HDSL2 (ANSI)

 SDSL Symmetric DSL (ETSI)

and is now called

 SHDSL Single pair HDSL (ITU)

Stein Intro DSL 58

 SHDSL
Uses Trellis Coded 16-PAM with various shaping options
Does not co-exist with POTS service on UTP
Can uses regenerators for extended reach
single-pair operation
 192 kbps to 2.312 Mbps in steps of 8 kbps
 2.3 Mbps should be achieved for reaches up to 3.5 km

dual-pair operation (4-wire mode)

 384 kbps to 4.608 Mbps in steps of 16 kbps
 line rate is the same on both pairs

Latest standard (G.shdsl.bis - G.991.2 2003 version)

 bonding up to 4 pairs
 rates up to 5696 kbps
 optional 32-PAM (instead of 16-PAM)
 dynamic rate repartitioning
Stein Intro DSL 59
 ADSL
Asymmetric - high rate DS, lower rate US
Originally designed for video on demand

New modulation type - Discrete MultiTone

FDD and ECH modes

Almost retired due to lack of interest

…but then came the Internet

Studies - DS:US for both applications can be about 10:1

Some say ADSL could mean

All Data Subscribers Living
Stein Intro DSL 60
 Why asymmetry?

NEXT is the worst interferer stops HDSL from achieving higher rates
FEXT much less (attenuated by line)

FDD eliminates NEXT

All modems must transmit in the SAME direction

A reversal would bring all ADSL modems down

Upstream(US) at lower frequencies and power density

Downstream (DS) at high frequencies and power

Stein Intro DSL 61

 ADSL Duplexing
 US uses low DMT tones (e.g. 8 - 32)
 If over POTS / ISDN lowest frequencies reserved
 DS uses higher tones
– If FDD no overlap
– If ECH DS overlaps US

P
O US DS
T G.992.1 FDD mode
S

8 32 256 * 4.3125 kHz

Stein Intro DSL 62
Why asymmetry? - continued
PSD (dBm/Hz)
-30
US
-40

-50

-60
DS
-70

-80

-90 F(MHz)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Stein Intro DSL 63

 Echo cancelled ADSL
FDD gives sweet low frequencies to US only
and the sharp filters enhance ISI
By overlapping DS on US
we can use low frequencies and so increase reach

Power spectral density chart

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Stein Intro DSL 64

 ADSL - continued
ADSL system design criterion BER 10-12 (1 error every 2 days at 6 Mbps)

Raw modem can not attain this low a BER!

For video on demand:

 RS and interleaving can deliver (error bursts of 500 sec)
 but add 17 msec delay

For Internet:
 TCP can deliver
 high raw delay problematic

So the G.992.1 standard defines TWO framers

fast (noninterleaved ) and slow (interleaved) buffers

Stein Intro DSL 65

 ADSL standard

ITU (G.dmt) G.992.1, ANSI T1.413i2 standard

DS - 6.144 Mbps (minimum)
US- 640 kbps

First ADSL data implementations were CAP (QAM)

ITU/ANSI/ETSI standards are DMT with spacing of 4.3125 kHz

 DMT allows approaching water pouring capacity

 DMT is robust

 DMT requires more complex processing

 DMT may require more power

Stein Intro DSL 66

 Splitterless ADSL
Splitterless ADSL, UAWG, G.lite, G.992.2, G.992.4
Splitterless operation
 fast retrain
 power management to eliminate clipping
 initialization includes probing telephone sets for power level
 microfilters
 modems usually store environment parameters

G.992.2 - cost reduction features

 G.992.1 compatible DMT compatible using only 128 tones

 512 Kbps US / 1.5 Mbps DS (still >> V.34 or V.90 modems)

 features removed for simplicity

 simpler implementation (only 500 MIPS < 2000 MIPS for full rate)

Stein Intro DSL 67

 ADSL2
ADSL uses BW from 20 kHz to 1.1 MHz
ADSL2 Increases rate/reach of ADSL by using 20 kHz - 4.4 MHz

Also numerous efficiency improvements

 better modulation
 reduced framing overhead
 more flexible format (see next slide)
 stronger FEC
 reduced power mode
 misc. algorithmic improvements

for given rate, reach improved by 200 m

3 user data types - STM, ATM and packet (Ethernet)

ADSL2+ dramatically increased rate at short distances

Stein Intro DSL 68

 More ADSL2 features

Dynamic training features

 Bit Swapping (dynamic change of DMT bin bit/power allocations)
 Seamless Rate Adaptation (dynamic change of overall rate)

Frame bearers
 Multiple (up to 4) frame bearers (data flows)
 Multiple latencies for different frame bearers (FEC/interleave lengths)
 Dynamic rate repartitioning (between different latencies)

Stein Intro DSL 69

 ADSL annexes (G.992.1/3)

Annex A ADSL over POTS

Annex B ADSL over 2B1Q/4B3T ISDN
Annex C ADSL over TDD ISDN
Annex D State diagrams (state machine for idle, (re)training, etc)
Annex E Splitters (POTS and ISDN)
Annex F North America - classification and performance
Annex G Europe - classification (interop options) and performance
Annex H Synchronized Symmetric DSL with TDD ISDN in binder

Stein Intro DSL 70

 ADSL annexes (G.992.3)

Annex I All digital ADSL (i.e. alone on UTP) with POTS in binder
Annex J All digital ADSL with ISDN in binder
Annex K Transmission Protocol Specific functions (STM, ATM, PTM)
Annex L Reach Extended ADSL2 over POTS
Annex M Extended US BW over POTS

Stein Intro DSL 71

 VDSL

Optical network expanding (getting closer to subscriber)

Optical Network Unit ONU at curb or basement cabinet

FTTC (curb), FTTB (building)

These scenarios usually dictates low power

Rates can be very high since required reach is minimal!

Proposed standard has multiple rates and reaches

Stein Intro DSL 72

 VDSL - rate goals
Symmetric rates
6.5 4.5Kft (1.4 Km)
13 3 Kft (900 m)
26 1 Kft (300 m)

Asymmetric rates (US/DS)

0.8/ 6.5 6 Kft (1.8 Km)
1.6/13 4.5 Kft (1.4Km)
3.2/26 3 Kft (900 m)
6.4/52 1 Kft (300 m)

Stein Intro DSL 73

 VDSL - Power issues

Basic template is -60 dBm/Hz from 1.1MHz to 20 MHz

Notches reduce certain frequencies to -80 dBm/Hz
Power boost on increase power to -50 dBm/Hz
Power back-off reduces VTU-R power so that won’t block another user
ADSL compatibility off use spectrum down to 300 KHz

Stein Intro DSL 74

 VDSL2
DMT line code (same 4.3125 kHz spacing as ADSL)
VDSL uses BW of 1.1 MHz - 12 MHz (spectrally compatible with ADSL)
VDSL2 can use 20 kHz - 30 MHz
 new band-plans (up to 12 MHz, and 12-30 MHz)
 increased DS transmit power
 various algorithmic improvements
 borrowed improvements from ADSL2
 3 user data types - STM, ATM and PTM

Stein Intro DSL 75

 VDSL2 band plans
North American bandplan
US0 (if present) starts between 4 kHz - 25 kHz
and ends between 138-276 kHz

Europe - six band plans (2 A and 4 B)

A (998) US0 from 25 DS1 from 138 or 276
US1 3750-5200 DS2 5200-8500
B (997) US0 from 25 or 120 or nonexistent
DS1 from 138 or 276
US1 3000-5100 DS2 5100-7050

Stein Intro DSL 76

 HPNA (G.PNT)
 Studies show that about 50% of US homes have a PC
30% have Internet access, 20% have more than one PC!
 Average consumer has trouble with cabling

HomePNA de facto industry standard for home networking

 Computers, peripherals interconnect (and connect to Internet?)

using internal phone wiring (user side of splitter)

 Does not interrupt lifeline POTS services

 Does not require costly or messy LAN wiring of the home

 Presently 1 Mbps, soon 10 Mbps, eventually 100 Mbps!

Stein Intro DSL 77

Shannon Theory

Stein Intro DSL 78

 Shannon - Game plan
Claude Shannon (Bell Labs) 1948
Digital communications never worse than analog
and frequently better !
Basic idea:
 Analog signals become contaminated by noise
 Amplification doesn't help - noise is amplified too
 Bits can not be degraded in a minor way - either 0 or 1
 When bit flip - Error Correcting Codes can fix

Rigorous proof:
 Source - channel separation theorem
 Source encoding theorems
 Channel capacity theorems
Stein Intro DSL 79
 Shannon - Separation Theorem

Source channel separation theorem

 Separate source coding from channel coding
 No efficiency loss

source channel channel channel source

info info
encoder bits encoder analog decoder bits decoder
signal

The following are NOT optimal !!!

 OSI layers
 Separation of line code from ECC
Stein Intro DSL 80
 Shannon - Channel Capacity
Every bandlimited noisy channel has a capacity
Below capacity errorless information reception
Above capacity errors

Shocking news to analog engineers

Previously thought:
only increasing power decreases error rate

But Shannon didn’t explain HOW!

Stein Intro DSL 81

Channel Capacity (continued)

Shannon’s channel capacity theorem:

If no noise (even if narrow BW):
Infinite information transferred instantaneously
Just send very precise level

If infinite bandwidth (even if high noise):

No limitation on how fast switch between bits

If both limitations:
C = BW log2 ( SNR + 1 )

Stein Intro DSL 82

 Channel Capacity (continued)

The forgotten part:

All correlations introduce redundancy
Maximal information means nonredundant

The signal that attains channel capacity

looks like white noise filtered to the BW

Stein Intro DSL 83

Channel Capacity (continued)
That was for an ideal low-pass channel
What about a real channel (like DSL)?

Shannon says ...

Simply divide channel into subchannels and integrate

each bandpass channel

obeys regular Shannon law

 log (SNR(f) + 1) BW
2  log (SNR(f) + 1) df
2

Only SNR(f) is important !

Stein Intro DSL 84

Water pouring (Gallager) theorem
Given total amount of energy, N(f) and A(F)
how can we maximize the capacity?

N(f) / A(f)

Stein Intro DSL 85

Line Codes

Stein Intro DSL 86

 How do modems work?

The simplest attempt is to simply transmit 1 or 0 (volts?)

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

This is called NRZ (short serial cables, e.g. RS232)

Information rate = number of bits transmitted per second (bps)

Stein Intro DSL 87

 The simplest modem - DC

So what about transmitting -1/+1?

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

This is better, but not perfect!

 DC isn’t exactly zero
 Still can have a long run of +1 OR -1 that will decay
 Even without decay, long runs ruin timing recovery (see below)

Stein Intro DSL 88

 The simplest modem - DC

What about RZ?

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

 No long +1 runs, so DC decay not important

 Still there is DC
 Half width pulses means twice bandwidth!

Stein Intro DSL 89

 The simplest modem - DC

T1 uses AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

 Absolutely no DC!
 No bandwidth increase!

Stein Intro DSL 90

 NRZ - Bandwidth

The PSD (Power Spectral Density) of NRZ is a sinc ( sinc(x) = sin(x)

x
)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

 The first zero is at the bit rate (uncertainty principle)

 So channel bandwidth limits bit rate
 DC depends on levels (may be zero or spike)

Stein Intro DSL 91

 From NRZ to n-PAM
+1

NRZ -1

1 1 1 0 0 1 0
+3 GRAY CODE
+1 10 => +3
11 => +1
4-PAM -1
01 => -1
(2B1Q) -3 00 => -3
11 10 01 01 00 11 01
GRAY CODE
100 => +7
8-PAM 101 => +5
111 => +3
110 => +1
010 => -1
111 001 010 011 010 000 110 011 => -3
001 => -5
 Each level is called a symbol or baud 000 => -7

 Bit rate = number of bits per symbol * baud rate

Stein Intro DSL 92

 PAM - Bandwidth
BW (actually the entire PSD) doesn’t change with n !
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5 BAUD RATE

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

So we should use many bits per symbol

But then noise becomes more important
(Shannon strikes again!)

Stein Intro DSL 93

 The simplest modem - OOK

Even better - use OOK (On Off Keying)

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

 Absolutely no DC!
 Based on sinusoid (“carrier”)
 Can hear it (morse code)

Stein Intro DSL 94

 OOK - Bandwidth

PSD of -1/+1 NRZ is the same, except there is no DC component

If we use OOK the sinc is mixed up to the carrier frequency
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

 (The spike helps in carrier recovery)

Stein Intro DSL 95

 ASK

What about Amplitude Shift Keying - ASK ?

2 bits /
symbol

11 10 01 01 00 11 01

 Generalizes OOK like multilevel PAM did to NRZ

 Not widely used since hard to differentiate between levels

Is FSK better?

Stein Intro DSL 96

 FSK
FSK is based on orthogonality of sinusoids of different frequencies
 Make decision only if there is energy at f1 but not at f2

 Uncertainty theorem says this requires a long time

 So FSK is robust but slow (Shannon strikes again!)

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

f1 f2

Stein Intro DSL 97

 PSK

Even better to use sinusoids with different phases!

BPSK
1 bit / symbol

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
or QPSK

2 bits / symbol
Bell 212 2W
1200 bps
11 10 01 01 00 11 01 V.22

Stein Intro DSL 98

 QAM

Finally, best to use different phases and amplitudes

2 bits per
symbol

11 10 01 01 00 11 01

 V.22bis 2W full duplex 2400 bps used 16 QAM (4 bits/symbol)

This is getting confusing

Stein Intro DSL 99

 The secret math behind it all

The instantaneous representation

 x(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 f t + (t) )
c

 A(t) is the instantaneous amplitude

 (t) is the instantaneous phase

This obviously includes ASK and PSK as special cases

 Actually all bandwidth limited signals can be written this way

 Analog AM, FM and PM

 FSK changes the derivative of (t)

The way we defined them A(t) and (t) are not unique
 The canonical pair (Hilbert transform)

Stein Intro DSL 100

 The secret math - continued

How can we find the amplitude and phase?

The Hilbert transform is a 90 degree phase shifter

H cos((t) ) = sin((t) )
Hence
 x(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 fc t + (t) )
 y(t) = H x(t) = A(t) sin ( 2 fc t + (t) )
 A(t) = x2(t) + y2(t)
 (t) = arctan( y(t) x(t) )

Stein Intro DSL 101

 Star watching

For QAM we can draw a diagram with

 x and y as axes
 A is the radius, the angle

For example, QPSK can be drawn (rotations are time shifts)

Each point represents 2 bits!

Stein Intro DSL 102

 QAM constellations

16 QAM V.29 (4W 9600 bps)

V.22bis 2400 bps Codex 9600 (V.29)

2W

first non-Bell modem (Carterphone decision)

Adaptive equalizer
Reduced PAR constellation
Today - 9600 fax!
8PSK
V.27 Received symbols are not points
due to noise and Inter Symbol Interference
4W (ISI removed by equalizer)
4800bps

Stein Intro DSL 103

QAM constellations (cont)

1664 points

Stein Intro DSL 104

 Multicarrier Modulation

 NRZ, RZ, etc. have NO carrier

 PSK, QAM have ONE carrier
 MCM has MANY carriers
 Each is essentially an independent, standalone modem
 Achieve maximum capacity by direct water pouring!

 PROBLEM
 Basic FDM requires has Inter Channel Interference
 To reduce effect require guard frequencies
 Squanders good bandwidth

Stein Intro DSL 105

 OFDM
 Subsignals are orthogonal if spaced precisely by the baud rate

 Sinc function has zero at center of nearby modem

 This implies that the signals are orthogonal - no ICI
 No guard frequencies are needed
 Don’t need N independent modems
– efficient digital implementation by FFT algorithm

Stein Intro DSL 106

 DMT
 Measure SNR(f) during initialization
 Water pour QAM signals according to SNR(f)
 Each individual signal narrowband --- no ISI
 Symbol duration > channel impulse response time --- no ISI
 No equalizer required

Stein Intro DSL 107

DMT - continued
frequency

time
Stein Intro DSL 108
 Summary of xDSL Line Codes
PAM
 IDSL (2B1Q)

 HDSL

 SHDSL/HDSL2 (with TCM and optionally OPTIS)

 SDSL

QAM/CAP
 proprietary HDSL/ADSL/VDSL

DMT
 ADSL

 ADSL2, ADSL2+

 G.lite

 VDSL2

Stein Intro DSL 109

 Misc. Topics
in
DSL Modem Theory

Stein Intro DSL 110

 Bit scrambling
We can get rid of long runs that cause DC at the bit level
out

in D D ... D D ... D

 Bits randomized for better spectral properties

 Self synchronizing
 Original bits can be recovered by descrambler
in D D ... D D ... D

out

Still not perfect! (one to one transformation)

Stein Intro DSL 111

 Timing
 Proper timing

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Provided by separated transmission

 … uses BW or another UTP

Improper timing

 causes extra or missed bits, and bit errors

Stein Intro DSL 112

 Timing (baudrate) recovery

How do we recover timing (baud rate) for an NRZ signal?

 For clean NRZ - find the GCF of observed time intervals
 For noisy signals need to filter b = T / 
T/b
 PLL

How can we recover the timing for a PSK signal?

 The amplitude is NOT really constant (energy cut-off)
 Contains a component at baud rate
 Sharp filter and appropriate delay
Similarly for QAM
BUT as constellation gets rounder
recovery gets harder

Stein Intro DSL 113

 Carrier recovery

Need carrier recovery for PSK / QAM signals

How can we recover the carrier of a PSK signal?

X(t) = A(t) cos ( 2 fc t ) where A(t) = +/- 1

So X2(t) = cos2 ( 2 fc t )

For QPSK X4(t) eliminates the data and emphasizes the carrier!

Old saying
“square for baud, to the fourth for carrier”

Stein Intro DSL 114

 Constellation rotation recovery

How can we recover the rotation of the constellation?

Simply change phase for best match to the expected constellation!

How do we get rid of 90 degree ambiguity?

We can’t! We have to live with it!
And the easiest way is to use differential coding!

00
DPSK 10 NPSK Gray code
01 000 100 110 010 011 111 101 001 000
11 1

QAM put the bits on the transitions!

Stein Intro DSL 115

ISI - BW reduction

Stein Intro DSL 116

 QAM ISI

The symbols overlap and interfere

Constellations become clouds
Only previous symbol

Moderate ISI

Severe ISI

Stein Intro DSL 117

 Equalizers

ISI is caused by the channel acting like a low-pass filter

 Can correct by filtering with inverse filter

channel
modulator equalizer demodulator
filter

This is called a linear equalizer

 Can use compromise (ideal low-pass) equalizer

plus an adaptive equalizer

 Usually assume the channel is all-pole

so the equalizer is all-zero (FIR)

How do we find the equalizer coefficients?

Stein Intro DSL 118

 Training equalizers

Basically a system identification problem

 Initialize during training using known data
(can be reduced to solving linear algebraic equations)
 Update using decision directed technique (e.g. LMS algorithm)
once decisions are reliable
 Sometimes can also use blind equalization


=
(ai)

Stein Intro DSL 119

 Equalizers - continued
Noise enhancement
noise

channel
modulator equalizer demodulator
filter

This is a basic consequence of using a linear filter

But we want to get as close to the band edges as possible

There are two different ways to fix this problem!

Stein Intro DSL 120

 Equalizers - DFE

ISI is previous symbols interfering with subsequent ones

Once we know a symbol (decision directed) we can use it

to directly subtract the ISI!
linear
equalizer slicer out

feedback
filter

Slicer is non-linear and so breaks the noise enchancement problem

But, there is an error propogation problem!

Stein Intro DSL 121

Equalizers - Tomlinson precoding
 Tomlinson equalizes before the noise is added
noise

Tomlinson channel
modulator demodulator
precoder filter

 Needs nonlinear modulo operation

 Needs results of channel probe or DFE coefficients
to be forwarded

Stein Intro DSL 122

 More on QAM constellations

What is important in a constellation?

 The number of points N
 The minimum distance between points dmin
 The average squared distance from the center E = <r2>
 The maximum distance from the center R

Usually
 Maximum E and R are given
 bits/symbol = log2 N
 PAR = R/r
 Perr is determined mainly by dmin

Stein Intro DSL 123

 QAM constellations - slicers
How do we use the constellation plot?

 Received point classified to nearest constellation point

 Each point has associated bits (well that’s a lie, but hold on)
 Sum of errors is the PDSNR

Stein Intro DSL 124

 Multidimensional constellations
 PAM and PSK constellations are 1D
 QAM constellations are 2D (use two parameters of signal)
 By combining A and  of two time instants ...
we can create a 4D constellation
 From N times we can make 2N dimensional constellation!

Why would we want to?

There is more room in higher dimensions!
1D 2 nearest neighbors 2D 4 nearest neighbors
How do I draw this?

ND 2N nearest neighbors!

Stein Intro DSL 125

 Trellis coding

Modems still make mistakes

 Traditionally these were corrected by ECCs (e.g. Reed Solomon)

 This separation is not optimal

 Proof: incorrect hard decisions - not obvious where to correct

soft decisions - correct symbols with largest error

How can we efficiently integrate demodulation and ECC?

 This was a hard problem since very few people were expert

in ECCs and signal processing

The key is set partitioning

Stein Intro DSL 126

 Set Partitioning - 8PAM

Original First step Final step





Subset 0 Subset 1 00 01 10 11

Stein Intro DSL 127

Set Partitioning - 8PSK

Stein Intro DSL 128

 Trellis coding - continued
 If we knew which subset was transmitted,
the decision would be easy
 So we transmit the subset and the point in the subset
 But we can’t afford to make a mistake as to the subset
 So we “protect” the subset identifier bits with an ECC

 To decode use the Viterbi algorithm (example for 4 states - 2 subsets)

Stein Intro DSL 129

 OPTIS Overlapping PAM Transmission with Interlocking Spectra
An single pair HDSL replacement
that is spectrally compatible with HDSL and T1

16 level PAM with 517K baud rate

very strong (512 state, >5 dB) TCM

1D for low (216 sec) latency (speech)
strong DFE

tailored spectra (fits between HDSL and T1)

partially overlapped (interlocking) spectra
folding (around fb/2) enhances SNR!
upstream bump for spectral compatibility

Stein Intro DSL 130

OPTIS - continued

Stein Intro DSL 131

OPTIS - continued

Stein Intro DSL 132

 DMT processing
bit handling ((de)framer, CRC, (de)scrambler, RS, (de)interleaver)
tone handling (bit load, gain scaling, tone ordering, bit swapping)
QAM modem (symbolizer, slicer)
signal handling (cyclic prefix insertion/deletion, (I)FFT,
interpolation, PAR reduction)

synchronization (clock recovery)

channel handling (probing and training, echo cancelling, FEQ, TEQ)

Stein Intro DSL 133