PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

OBJECTIVITY
This would mean that a scientific work should
have no biases.

For example: data should be represented as it is

without being influenced by the values of tthe
scientist. This important in the scientific
enterprise since it would lead to seeing the
world as it really is without the values that we
have as human being.
UNIVERSALITY
It is assumed that the conclusion or
the “facts” that have been proven in
science is applicable in all contexts.
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Science relies on empirical
evidence . Apparently, this means
that it does not accept something
that cannot be experienced by the
senses.
 The figure below summarizes the division in the sciences

SCIENCE

NATURAL SOCIAL

PHYSICAL • SOCIOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL • POLITICAL SCIENCE
• PHYSICS -BIOLOGICAL • EONOMICS
• CHEMISTRY -BOTANY
EPISTEMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE IN RESEARCH

Epistemology is the branch of

philosophy that deals with the
study of knowledge and how it is
produced. It’s root word is
“epistem” which is a Greek word
for “knowledge.”
The four Epistemological Perspective:

• Empirical-positivism
• Interpretivism
• Critical Theory
• Post- modernism
Empirical- positivism
is a result of the rise of modernity that
started in the Renaissance in Italy. It was
the time where christianity and the power
of religion were declining. This was the
time where science, capitalism, and
humanism were on the rise. The discovery
of the classic works of the Greeks and the
Romans.
They believed that the only
reality that exist is the one
could be experienced.
 August Comte

- sociologist that attempted to apply the

methods at the natural sciences to the study of
society or social. This is to make sure that the
social sciences will harness the natural sources.
The empirical- positivist
research has the
following characteristics:
Form of Research: Quantitative
Empirical positivist believe in the power
of quantitative analysis in their research.
They use numbers because they can
simple reality. In the field of natural it is
believed that mathematics is its language.
Hence, the one of numbers would help in
establishing casual relationship which can
lead to prediction.
Method: Probability Sampling and Survey

When it comes to the collection of data,

they make sure that the s ample are
determined randomly. There is not
much room for non- probability
samplinghere because he samples
might not represent the population.
Also, due to the importance of
statistical data, the usual instrument
used in empirical positivism would
be surveys because it can produce
statistical data that can be
interpreted and analyzed in an
objective manner.
Knowledge: Empirical and Rational
Knowledge production comes from the
sense experiences or from logical
deductions from the data collected.
Basically the knowledge we produce
here must be comprehended by our
reason and our reason alone. Anything
that cannot be apprehended by our
reason and our reason alone.
Anything that cannot be
apprehended by our reason will not
be oconsidered as knowledge. Thus,
any data coming from emotions and
not operationlized by number wil
not be accepted as knowledge
Conclusions: Objective and Universal
For the empirical positivism, the
conclusions do not only apply in the
study that it was collected from. It can
apply to all texts. Also, when it comes to
data interpretation and analysis they
believe that they have done it in an
objective manner. Hence, they did not
let their values affecttheir judgements.
INTERPRETIVISM
INTERPRIVITISM
This perspective is used in the field
of sociology and anthropology
because of its emphasis on cultural
context.
The following are the assumptions of
interpretative research:
1. Form of Research: Qualitative
As a critique of empirical-positivism,
interpretivists use qualitative
reseach as their design. It allows
them to collect stories or narratives
that the can make sense of.
 METHOD:

Non-Probability Sampling and Qualitative Instruments of

collecting data (E.g. Interview,Observation Both
Participant and non-Participant, Focus Group
Discussion).

Interpretivism opposes the idea of probability sampling

becuause it does not really aim at generalizatoins. The
reason is that it believes in the idea of relativism of
Knowledge: Empirical, Ratioal, and Cultural
Interpretivism uses empirical and rational
data.
The use of cultural data including beliefs,
religion, traditions, and customs which are
not necessarily empirical or rational- is
great importance in making sense if
interpretative data. Hence, there are
situations wherein the answers may that
cannot be easily seen in reality
Conclusions: Subjective and Relative
The conclusions formulated in the
interpretative approach are
subjected and relative. This mean
that the researcher should recognize
the fact that his/her study is not
applicable to all context.
 CRITICAL THEORY

Critical Theory is pioneered by the ever famous Karl

Marx who lived during the Industrial Revolution.
Critical theory aims to criticize the current order. It
would like to expose the dominance of a certain group
and how they opressed the minority.
Form of Research: Qualitative and, Sometimes
Quantitative

The usual conduct of critical theory

research is that it follows the
qualitative approach. Since it aims for
criticism and action, it uses the theory
at hand to collect the “needed” data to
support the criticism.
Method: Non-probability and Quantitative
and Qualitative Instruments
the respondentspf the research are
chosen based on the need of the
critical researcher
Knowledge: Critical
The knowledge produced here is
basically a criticism of what is
happening around us. Since this
perspective aims to change society, it
should produce the kind of knowledge
that can contribute to changing the
current set-up of society
Conclusion: Initiate and Guide Action

The conclusions in a critical theory

project must serve as an instigator
of action. As discussed earlier, the
aim of critical theory research is to
start action.
 POST-MODERNIST APPROACH

Is a respone to the dominant research approach. It

views empirical-positivism as the product of
modernity and its repressive norms. Thus, post-
modernism deconstruct and structures of modernity.
1. Form of Research: Qualitative
Since the post-modernist perpective
gives emphasis on intellectual
calisthenics, it always uses the
qualitative form of research.
2. Method Textual and Discourse Analysis

In this perspective there is no need

for respondents since it focuses
more on documents and pieces of
literature.
3. Knowledge: Deconstruction

Post-modern research presents to us

a deconstruction of reality from
simple things. Basically, they make
sense of some simple thing and
reveal a deeper meaning for it.
Conclusion: Subjective and Intellectual Purpose

Post-modern research conclusions

tend to be subjective since it relies
on the analysis of the researcher.
 LET US SUM IT UP!

1. Science is a systematized body of knowledge based on facts and

evidence.
2. The scientific approach recognizes the importance of objectivity,
universality, and empirical data.
3. Philosophy of science is basically an attempt to understand how
science produces knowledge and how to determine what is
knowledge.
4. There are four epistemological perspectives in research: empirical-
positivism, interpretivism, critical theory, and post-modernism
EPISTOMOLOGICAL FORM OF METHOD KNOWLEDGE CONCLUSIONS
APPROACH RESEARCH

1. Empirical-positivism Qualitative Probability Sampling Empirical Rational Universal and

and Quantitative Tools Objective

2. Interpretivism Qualitative Non-probability Empirical, Rational, Subjective and

Sampling and and Cultural Relative
Qualitative tools

3. Critical Theory Qualitative and Non-probability Critical Knowledge Initiate and Guide
Quantitative sampling and both actions
quantitative and
qualitative tools( for
the sake of critiquing
society)
4. Post Modernity Qualitative Textual and Discourse Deconstruction ( to subjective and
Analysis reveal power Intellectual purposes
relations and
repressive norms of
modernity0
 LET US SUM IT UP!

5. The researcher has a choice among these different

perspectives. The hosen perspective will determine how the
research should be done and how it will be used.