Unit 1

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Instrumentation is a branch of engineering science which deals with the techniques used for
measurement, the measuring devices used and the problems that are associated with the technique
used for measurement.

“In other words it can be said that instrumentation is a branch that deals with the Technology of
making instruments and basic principles used in construction of instruments”.

Hence, using an instrument, some measurement is being done. Generally, measurement is a word
used to tell us about physical quantities such as length, weight, temperature, pressure, Force, etc.,
this physical quantity which is the object of measurement of an instrument is called as measured or
the measured variable. Standardization organizations.

NBS -National Bureau of Standardization.

ISO -International organization for standardization.
ANSI -American National Standardization Institute.

Measurements:

For measurement an instrument is necessary. In general, measurement means getting to know about
physical quantity such as length, weight, temperature, pressure force and so on.
This physical quantity is called as measured variable.
Measurement is the outcome of an opinion formed by observers about some physical
quantity. The observer forms this opinion by comparing the object with a quantity of similar

kind is called standard.

Standard (Known
quantity)

Measurand or Comparison Result (Numerical

input signal process value)

Measurement

Measurement is the process of comparing the input signal (unknown magnitude) with a pre-
defined standard and giving out the result is called measurements.
The result of measurement is a numerical value representing the ratio of the unknown
quantity to the standard used. This number becomes the value of the measured quantity.
Requirements of Measurement

For the measurements results to be accurate, two conditions should be met.

Firstly, the standard which is used for comparison must be defined accurately and it should be
universally accepted.
The second important condition to be met for measurements is that the procedure applied for
the measurements should be provable and there should be provable instruments for
measurements.

MEASUREMENT METHODS:

The methods of measurement are classified under two heads namely:

(a)Direct comparison method.

(b)Indirect comparison method.

(a)DIRECT COMPARISION METHOD:

 In this method, the measured (unknown quantity) is directly compared with the standard.
 The result of measurement is a number and a unit. The direct comparison method is used for
measuring physical quantities such as time, mass, length etc,.
 Ex: Measuring the length of a wire. The unit of length is meter. The wire is so many times
long because that many units on the standard have the same length of the wire.

When the unknown quantity (measured) is very small, the human being cannot make direct
comparison with accuracy and precision. Moreover, human beings cannot distinguish wide margins
of the measured and hence it becomes a constraint in direct comparison methods.

(b)INDIRECT COMPARISION METHOD:

 In many applications, the indirect comparison method is used which intern means the use of a
measurement system.
 These measurement systems have a transducer element which converts the quantity to be
measured from one form to another form (analogous signal) without changing
the information content.
 The analogous signal is then processed and is sent to the end devices which present the result
of measurement.
 “In short, in indirect comparison method, the input signal is converted to some other form
and then it is compared with the standard”.
 Methods of measurement can also be classified as
a.Primary measurement
b.Secondary measurement
c.Tertiary measurement
Primary Measurement
Only subjective information is provided in this method.
Example:
 One vessel is cooler than the other.
 One rod is longer than the other.
These measurements are made by direct observation. They do not involve any translation of
information.
Secondary Measurement
In this method, the output result is obtained by one translation.
Example:
Convertion of Measurand into length which is shown below. Bellows, bourdon’s pressure
gauge.

Measurand or Pressure length Measured value or

Translation
input Primary signal output
secondary signal

Tertiary Measurement:
In this method, the output result is obtained by two translations.
Example:
Electric tachometer. The input is converted to voltage then this voltage is converted to
length.
Speed voltage length Output or
Input or P Tachometer Voltmeter
T
measurand (translation measured
[second
rimary ) secondary signal value
translation] ertiary signal
signal
APPLICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

Measuring instruments are used in the following three areas namely:

(a)Monitoring of processes and operations

(b)Control of processes and operations

(C) Experimental engineering analysis.

(a)MONITORING OF PROCESSES AND OPERATIONS:

Some of the measuring in performs the function of monitoring. EXAMPLES (1):

Thermometers, pressure gauges, etc.

 These instruments simply indicate the condition of the environment. Their reading does not
serve any control function.

EXAMPLE (1): Water, gas and electric meters:

 These meters indicate the quantity of commodity used. Using this quantity, the cost to the
user can be calculated.

(b)CONTROL OF PROCESSES AND OPERATIONS:

Here the instrument is used as a component of an automatic control system.

(c) EXPERIMENTAL ENGINEERING ANALYSIS:

There are two methods to solve engineering problems namely:

 Theoretical methods
 Experimental methods.

In many cases, application of both the methods is required. Following are characteristics of
experimental methods.

 These methods give results that apply only to specific problems.

 The real true behavior of the system is revealed.
 The features of the measuring instrument must be understood properly.
 A scale model or the actual system itself is required.

GENERALISED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND ITS ELEMENTS

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

INPUT SIGNAL (Measurand) OUTPUT SIGNAL (Measurement)

The main functions of an instrument is

Get information,
Process the information and
Present the information to a human observer.

For the purpose of study, the instrument is considered as a system. A system is an

assembly of components which are interconnected to perform a specific function. Each component
is called as an element: Each element does a particular act during measurement.

The common elements of a generalized measurement system are listed below:

ELEMENTS STAGES

1. Primary sensing element. Detector- Transducer stage.

2. Variable conversion or transducer element.

3. Variable manipulation element. Intermediate modifying stage.

4. Data transmission element.

5. Data processing element.

6. Data presentation element.
Terminating stage
7. Data storage and playback element.

1. PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT:

 The primary sensing element is the first element of a measurement system. This
element takes energy from the measured medium and it produces an output depending
on the Measurand, that is, measured quantity.

 It should be noted that the instrument takes energy from the measured medium and due to this
the measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of measurement. As such, a perfect
measurement is theoretically impossible. This effect is called loading.
 The instrument has to be designed to minimize this loading effect.
2. VARIABLE CONVERSION OR TRANSDUCER ELEMENTS:

 The primary sensing element gives an output signal which is some physical variable like
displacement or voltage.
 The variable conversion, or transducer element converts the signal from one physical form to
another withou1 changing the information content of the signal.
 The output of the transducer element is in a form which is more suitable for measurement.

3. VARIABLE MANIPULATION ELEMENT:

 A variable manipulation element manipulates its input to get a magnified output. That is, the
input signal is amplified to get the output.
 It should be noted that both the input and output signal are of the same form.

Example: Displacement amplifier.

Therefore, output signal input signal x some constant

Example: Electrical amplifier.

 It should be noted that the physical nature of the variable is maintained by

themanipulator.
4. DATA TRANSMISSION ELEMENT:
This element transfers the signal from one place to another without disturbing the signalbeing
transmitted.

Examples:

From shaft to gear Short distance

From test center to computer Medium distance

From ground equipment to missiles Long distance

5. DATA PROCESSING ELEMENT:

 The data processing element alters the data before it is presented on a displayor before it is
recorded.
 The main work of this element is to convert the date to an understandable anduseful form.
Example:
 It removes unwanted disturbances such as noises which come with the signal
 It can provide compensation for change in temperature etc.,

6. DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:

 The information about the measured quantity is to be presented to a human being for
monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
 Hence the information about the measured quantity has to be put in a form that is
understandable to the human being. An element that performs this translation function
is called as “Data presentation element”.

Examples:

 Pointer moving over a scale.

5. DATA STORAGE AND PLAYBACK ELEMENT:

This element stores the data/information and presents the same when commanded.

Example:

 Pen-ink recording
 Magnetic tape recorder - reproducer
 Computer.
Example for the Concept of Measurement System.

For any instrument, the various basic elements can be identified and a flow diagram
illustrating the input - output of these various elements can be drawn. Such a diagram for a pressure
type thermometer has been shown in below.

Note:
The General System of Measurement comprises of three stages these are:

First stage - the detector-transducer stage.

Second stage – Intermediate modifying stage
Final stage – Terminating stage comprising of: the indicator, recorder, some controller
as individuals or in combination.
First Stage: The Detector-Transducer Stage

Let us consider an example here for the measurement of pressure using Bourdon tube. The pressure
of fluid cannot be measured directly, hence Bourdon tube is used as the transducer to convert the
property or signal of pressure into other property or signal that can be measured easily. The Bourdon
tube is a thin tube with oval cross section and coiled into an arc with included angle less than 360
degree (see the fig). One end of this tube is connected to the inlet pressure and the other end, which
is sealed, is connected to the pointer that moves on the angular scale. When the pressure is applied to
the Bourdon tube the oval section tends to become circular, due to which the tube tends to uncoil and
move the end connected to the pointer.

Here the Bourdon tube senses the pressure, and it acts as the transducer that detects the
quantity to be measured.

Second Stage: Intermediate Modifying Stage

The coiled oval shaped tube acts as the intermediate stage. When the pressure is applied at the inlet
the oval tube tends to become circular, but inner and the outer diameters of the coil tend to remain
the same. Due to this the coil tends to uncoil producing the angular motion of the tip of the
coil, which is connected to the final stage of the pointer that indicates the value of the
applied pressure.

Final Stage: Terminating Stage

In our example of Bourdon tube, the sealed tip of the coil is connected to the pointer via
linkages and the gear arrangement. The pointer moves over the predefined scale that indicates the
value of the pressure. When the pressure is applied the tip of the Bourdon tube uncoils, which moves
the linkages and the gear that finally produce the rotary motion of the pointer on the scale indicating
the actual value of the applied pressure.

Instrument Characteristics and Common Terminologies

The value of the physical quantity obtained using the instrument will never be equal to the true
value, and if it occurs so, it is due to luck and it will be unrecognized.

Hence, no instrument will give an exact value of the physical quantity being measured.

There is always some deviation (uncertainty) in the measured value and this deviation is measured
in terms of accuracy, precision and error.

Accuracy:

When a physical quantity is being measured, a numerical value is obtained. A concern arises
regarding how close this value is to the true value (Theoretically correct value).
As the physical quantity cannot be defined perfectly, the true value of the physical quantity is
unknown and unknowable. In practice, true value refers to a value obtained by an
“EXAMPLAR-METHOD.”
This method has been agreed by experts to be sufficiently accurate. The closeness of the
measured value with respect to the true value is called as accuracy.

Example:

Let us say a micrometer is used to measure a wire whose diameter is 10 mm (Determined by an

exemplar method).
If the micrometer reads 9.99 mm or 10.01 mm, these values are close to the true value and hence
the micrometer is said to be accurate.
If the micrometer reads 9.5 mm or 10.3 mm, these values are far from the true value and
hence the micrometer is said to be inaccurate.
The accuracy of the physical quantity being measured depends on the following:

Accuracy of the instrument being used to measure the physical quantity.

Variation of the physical quantity being measured.
The extent to which the true value is impressed on the instrument.
The accuracy with which the observation is made by the observer.

Precision (Repeatability or reproducibility):

The terms accuracy and precision are used interchangeably in many situations. But in
instrumentation, accuracy and precision mean different.
The term precision refers to the ability of an instrument to reproduce its readings again and again
in the same manner for a constant input signal.
That is, if a number of measurements are made on the same true value, the degree of
closeness of these measurements is called as precision.
 Now let us differentiate between accuracy and precision.
 Accuracy represents to the closeness of the measured value with respect the
true value.
 But precision refers to the ability of the instrument to reproduce its readings again and
again in the same manner for a constant input signal.

Example:

Let us consider three instruments X, Y and Z measuring the same true value of 10 mm. ten
measurements are taken on the same true value.

Difference between Precision and Accuracy:

Sl.No Precision Accuracy

1
Precision is nothing but the Accuracy is the degree to which the measured
repeatability of the process. value agrees with the true value of the measured
quantity.
2
Precision is the fineness of the Accuracy is the relative between the observed
instrument of the dispersion of value and true values. It is also the desirability of
the repeated readings. the observed readings from the true values.
3 Accuracy may designate precision.
The precision never designates
accuracy.
4
Precision is defined as the close Accuracy is defined as the relationship between
relationship of the observed the value of observed.
readings with the average value.
5
Standard deviation is the index of The difference between the measured value and
precision for the less value of σ, the true value is the error of the measurement.
more precise is the instrument. If the error is less, then the accuracy is more.

ERROR:

Error is the difference between the measured value (Vm) and the true value (Vt) of a physical
quantity. The accuracy of a measurement system is measured in terms of error.
Static error E = Vm - Vt
Error may be positive or negative. If the instrument reads higher than the true value, it is called as
positive error and if the instrument reads lower than the true value, it is called as negative error.
A study of error helps in reducing them and helps in finding the reliability of the results.

TYPES OF ERRORS:

Important errors have been listed below.

a.Systematic errors or fixed errors

 Errors due to calibration.
 Human errors (observation errors and operational errors).
 Loading error (system interaction error).
 Error of technique.
 Instruments Errors
b.Illegitimate errors
 Chaotic errors.
c.Random errors
 Environmental error

Errors Due To Calibration:

Any instrument has to be calibrated before it is put to use. Calibration is a process of giving a
known input to the measurement system and taking necessary actions to see that the output of the
measurement system matches with its input.
 If the instrument is not calibrated properly, it will show reading with a higher degree
of error. This is called as calibration error.
 Calibration errors are fixed errors as they have been introduced into the measurement system
because of improper calibration.

Human Errors:

 There are two human errors namely the observation errors and the operational errors.
 There is a saying that “Instruments are better than the people who use them”. Even if a good
instrument is available, errors are introduced due to the user.
 Observation errors are due to improper observation made by the user of the instrument.
Example (1): If the graduations on the scale are very close, the observer may read incorrectly.
Example (2): Not observing continuously when it is necessary to do so.

Loading Errors (System Interaction Errors):

 The measuring instrument always takes energy from the signal source (measured medium)
and due to this the signal source is always altered by the act of measurement. This effect is
called as loading.
 As the measured quantity loses energy due to the act of measurement, error is introduced.
This is called as loading error.

Example (1): When a thermometer is introduced, it alters the thermal capacity of the system and
heat leakage takes place. Due to this error occurs.

Example (2): Reading of a hand tachometer will vary depending on the pressure with which it is
pressed on the shaft.

Error of technique

Improper use of the exact technique for executing an operation leads to this type of error.

Instruments Errors:

 The accuracy of an instrument is affected due to limitations in its design and construction.
Example (1): The components of an instrument may be assembled incorrectly and due to this
an error may occur. This error does not vary with time and can be corrected.
Example (2): An improper material may be selected for the instrument causing it to wear
quickly or creating friction, thus introducing an error.
b.Illegitimate errors Chaotic Errors:
 Errors induced by random disturbances such as vibrations, noises, shocks etc., of sufficient
magnitude tend to affect the test information. Such errors are called as chaotic errors.
 Due to such random disturbances, the instrument cannot measure the physical quantity
properly and more over there will be information lose during signal transmission, this is
called as transmission error.

Uncertainty and Random Error

 Uncertainty and random errors are indicated when repeated measurements of the same
quantity result in differing values. The magnitude and direction of these errors are not known
and as such are considered indeterminate.
 They are caused by such effects as friction, spring hysteresis, noise, and other phenomena.
The contributing factors are any random changes in input signal, combined with noise and
drift in the signal conditioner.
 Such errors occur more in dynamic data analysis. The uncertainty is expressed as the average
deviation, probable error, or statistical deviation. The error value is estimated as the amount
by which the observed or calculated value departs from the true value.

Environmental Error:

 Any instrument is manufactured and calibrated at one place and is put in use at some other
place where the environmental conditions such as pressure, temperature, humidity etc., are
different.

 This change in environment influences the readings of the instrument. This change in reading
of the instrument due to environmental changes is called as environmental error.

Example (1): If a mercury - in glass thermometer is located at a place where the air pressure is high,
the air pressure acts on the walls of the thermometer causing the mercury to rise even
without a change in temperature.

Example (2): A bourdon-tube pressure gauge has a link-sector-pinion arrangement. The link
may expand if the environmental temperature increases, causing an error.
The following points are noted to eliminate environmental errors.

The measuring instrument is calibrated at that place of use.

Atmospheric temperature changes are monitored.
The instrument is used in conditions as told by the manufacturer of the instrument.

Some automatic devices are used to compensate the effects due to change in environment

Comparison between Systematic Error and Random Error

Sl.No Systematic Error Random Error

1
These errors repetitive in nature and are These errors are not repetitive and they
constant and similar form. The value of error occur randomly.
can change according to a constant law.
2
The systematic errors are controllable in It cannot be determined and it cannot be
magnitude and sense. reduced.
3 Systematic error can be analyzed properly It cannot be analyzed properly.

4 This occurs due to experimental mistake.

This occurs due to small variation in
positioning of work piece & instrument.
5
They cannot be identified by repeated They can be identified by the repeated
observations. fluctuations of the readings.

Classification of instrument as indicator, recorder and integrator: INDICATOR

In various manufacturing contexts an indicator is one of the instruments used to accurately
measure small distances, and amplify them to make them more obvious.
The name comes from the concept of indicating to the user that which their naked eye cannot
discern; such as the presence, or exact quantity, of some small distance (for example, a small height
difference between two flat surfaces, a slight lack of concentricity between two cylinders, or
other small physical deviations).
Many indicators have a dial display, in which a needle points to graduations in a circular
array around the dial. Such indicators, of which there are several types, therefore are often called dial
indicators.
 Non-dial types of indicators include mechanical devices with cantilevered pointers and
electronic devices with digital displays.
 Indicators may be used to check the variation in tolerance during the inspection process of a
machined part.
 Dial indicators typically measure ranges from 0.25mm to 300mm (0.015in to 12.0in), with
graduations of 0.001mm to 0.01mm (metric) or 0.00005in to 0.001in (imperial).

Alternate names are associated with indicators of various types,

 Plunger indicator
 Dial gauge,
 Probe indicator,
 Pointer,
 Test indicator,
 Dial test indicator, and others.

Dial Indicator:

 Dial indicator is a small indicating device using mechanical means such as gears, pinions for
magnification.
 The usual magnification is about 250 to 1000.
 It consists of a plunger which slides in bearing and carries a rack at its inner end. The rack
meshes with a pinion, which drives another gear and pinions.
 The linear movement of the plunger is magnified by means of a rack and pinion train into
sizable rotation of the pointer on the dial scale.
 The plunger is kept in its normal extended position by means of alight coil spring. The linear
movement of the plunger is magnified by the gear train and transmitted to the pointer on the
dial scale.
 The dial scale is set to zero by use of slip gauges representing the basic size of the part to be
measured.
  Dial indicators are compact and robust in construction.
 They are portable, easy to handle and can be set very quickly.
 This type of comparator can be used with various attachments so that it may be used
for larger number of works.
 They are used for inspection of small precision machined parts testing alignment, roundness,
parallelism of work pieces, etc.

Application

 To check for run out when fitting a new disc to an automotive disc brake. Runout can rapidly
ruin the disc if it exceeds t he specified tolerance (typically 0.05mm or less).
)
 In a quality environment to check for consistency and accuracy in the manufacturing process.
 On the workshop floor to initially set up or calibrate a machine, prior to a production run.
 By toolmakers (mold makers) in the process of manufacturing precision tooling.
 The ultimate aim of reducing it to a suitably small range using small chuck jaw
adjustments.
RECORDER

A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical

input trend onto a piece of paper (the chart).
Chart recorders may record several inputs using different color pens and may record onto
strip charts or circular charts.
Chart recorders may be entirely mechanical with clockwork mechanisms, electro-mechanical with
an electrical clockwork mechanism for driving the chart (with mechanical or pressure inputs), or
entirely electronic with no mechanical components at all (a virtual chart recorder).
Chart recorders are built in three primary formats.
 Strip chart recorders have a long strip of paper that is ejected out of the
recorder.
Circular chart recorders have a rotating disc of paper that must be replaced more often, but

are more compact and amenable to being enclosed behind glass.
 Roll chart recorders are similar to strip chart recorders except that the rec orded data is stored
on a round roll, and the unit is usually fully enclosed.

Circular recorders:

Instruments, commonly known as “pen recorders” or “plotters,” that make a graphic record of
one or more quantities as a function of another variable, usually time.

g
The complete instrument is often named a “-graph,” for example, a baro raph for recording
barometric pressure data, a tachograph for recording the time and velocity that a vehicle is in motion,
or a seismograph for recording seismic waves.

INTEGRATOR

An integrator is a device to perform the mathematical operation known as

integration, a fundamental operation in calculus.
Mechanical integrators are used in such applications as metering of water flow or
electric power. Electronic analog integrators were the basis of analog computers.
Disk and wheel mechanical integrator

The earliest integrator was a mechanical instrument called the planimeter.

The illustration (below) shows a simple mechanical integrator of the disk-and-wheel variety, which
has essential parts mounted on mutually perpendicular shafts, with a means of positioning the
wheel in frictional contact with the disk, or turntable.
In use, an angular displacement of the disk causes the wheel to turn correspondingly.
The radius of the integrating wheel introduces a scale factor, and its positioning on the disk
represents the integrand.

 Thus the rotations of the disk and the wheel are related through multiplicative factors and the
number of turns made by the integrating wheel (for any number of turns of the disk) will be
expressed as a definite integral of the function represented by the variable position of
the wheel on the disk.
Electronic integrator
Electronic integrators or electrical integrating circuits have largely displaced mechanical
integrators. The illustration (bottom) shows an electrical circuit that acts as an integrator.

For time-varying input, if the resistance R shown in the schematic diagram is very large compared
with the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor C, the current will be almost in phase with the input
voltageIN, but the output voltage EOUT will lag the phase of the input voltage E IN by almost 90°. Thus
the output voltage EOUT is the time integral of the input voltage E IN, as well as the product of the
current and the capacitive reactance, XC.

Viewed as analogues, many common devices can be considered as integrators—examples being the
odometer and the watt-hour meter. See also analog computer; differential analyzer.

Calibration:

Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instrument’s accuracy to make sure
its accuracy is within the manufacturer’s specifications.

Calibration is an essential part of industrial measurement and control. It can be defined as the
comparison of specific values of the input and output of an instrument with a corresponding
reference standard.
It offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it operates with the required accuracy and the
range specifications under the stipulated environmental conditions. Calibrated
devices permit a manufacturer or processor to produce a quality product with desirable or
required specifications. By this process, the errors and corrections are revealed.
Calibration must be performed periodically to test the validity of the performance of the
device or the system and requires the use of a standard for comparison of values. These
comparisons require operator skill, availability of good reference standards, and standard
environments.

ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT ERROR

Types of Frequency Location Cause Detection Remedy Prevention

errors
1. systematic Periodic Instrumen t Recurring Comparison
or fixed observer malfunction or
of one or substitution
more
elements
a. calibration Change with Instrumen t False Comparison Replace Instrument
measurement elements, to superior instrument evaluation
design and standard
construction
errors
b. Human Changes with Observer Bias, physical Substitute Train Training
observers peculiarities observer observer
c. Technique Change with Instrumen t or observer Use of the Substitute Change Education
measurement s known method method
method but in
a situation for
which it is not
satisfactory

d. changes with Instrumen t or observer Use of an Substitute Change Education

Experimenta l measurement known method method
method in a
situation for
which it is not
satisfactory

2.random or random Instrumen Erratic Comparison

accidental t observer malfunction or
technique of one or substitution
or part more
elements of
parts
a. Judgement Change with observers Lack of substitution Tighter training
observers discipline or controls
precise and
instructions procedure s

b. Condition Changes Instrumen Disturbed Systematic Replace Environmen

without t element substitution trouble t controls
regard to caused by of element some instrument
system external element standards
influences
such as
vibration or
temperature
change
3. Random Instrumen t or observers Outside Reappraisal
illegitimate periodic and interferences of procedure
continuous or other
completely
avoidable
disturbances
a. mistakes Changes with Instrumen t or observer Wrong Analysis of Replace or education
observers decision in measuremen t retain
technique choice and system faulty
use of element
measuremen t
instruments
c. chaotic random Instrumen t or observers Extreme Self- Stop Environmen
external detecting measure analysis
disturbance until ended