Pharmaceutical Engineering

Module 1
 Introduction
• A fluid that having property of flow and being capable of its shape
continously under an applied shear stress.
• It basically refers to liquid and gases.
• Subject of fluid is divided into two parts: 1. Fluid static 2. Fluid dynamic

• Application of fluid flow:

• 1. It is used in manufacture of dosage form.
• 2. Mixing of solid and liquid to form suspension.
• 3. Handling and packaging of drugs.
• 4. It is used to measure rate of flow of fluid.
 Fluid static
• It is also called hydrostatic.
• There is no shear stress when fluid is at rest.
• Any force developed is only due to its pressure and pressure
variation will be due to weight of liquid.
• In simple words, in fluid static we will studying the nature of
pressure exerted by fluid and variations of pressure at
different level when flow rate of fluid is zero.
 Principle of fluid static
• A fluid like water or air exerts • Let us consider a cylinder
pressure on its surrounding. containing liquid up height ‘h’.
• This pressure applies a Now pressure at the bottom of
distributed load on surfaces cylinder can be calculated as:
surrounding the fluid, like faces of P = F/A & F = m*g
dam , an irrigation control gate. m = *V & V = A*h
• At the surface, gage pressure is P = *A*h*g/A
zero. The fluid pressure P P = g*h*
increases with depth according to
P=
 Application of fluid static
• Principle of fluid static is applied in working of manometer.
• It is also applied for quantification of fluid flow as in Bernoulli’s theorem.
 Fluid Dynamic
• It deals with fluid in motion.
• This knowledge is important for liquids , gels, ointments which will change
their behaviour of flow when exposed to different stress conditions.
• Principle:- conservation of mass:
• Basic fluid mechanics laws dictate that mass is conserved within a control
volume for constant density fluid.
• Application:
• It is used in calculating forces and moments of air crafts.
• Predicting weather patterns.
• Determining mass rate flow of petroleum through peplines.
 Manometer
• It is a device that is used to measure pressure of single fluid or pressure
difference between two fluid.
• It is a U shaped tube filled with liquid , gas , steam etc.

Types of manometer-
1.Simple manometer
2.Differential U-shaped manometer
3. Small manometer
 Simple manometer
• It has a glass tube that’s one is connected to glass tube whose pressure is
to measured and the other end is open to atmosphere.
• It is further classified into four types:
• 1.Piezomanometer
• 2.U-tube manometer
• 3.Single column manometer
• 4.Inclined tube manometer
• 1:Piezomanometer : For measuring the pressure in a vessel in
which liquid is there, a tube is attached in the walls of the container in
which the liquid can rise in the tube. By determining the height to which
liquid rises by using relation:
• P= gh, a gauge pressure of liquid can be determined.
 2:U-tube manometer
• It consists of a glass folded like letter U.
• In this manometer one of the U- tube is connected with the fluid whose pressure is
to be measured while other end is open to atmosphere.
• It consists of manometric fluid(generally mercury) whose density must be higher
than the fluid whose pressure has to be measured. It is used to measure. It is used to
measure moderate to high pressure.

3: Single column manometer

. Consider a vertical tube micro manometer connected to a pipe containing

light liquid under high pressure. The pressure in the pipe will force the
lighter liquid in the basin to push heavier liquid downward. Due to large
area the fall of heavy liquid will be a very small . The downward move-
-ment of heavy liquid into basin will result in significant rise of heavy liquid in
limb.
 4:Inclined tube manometer
• If vertical tube of micro manometer is made inclined then it is called
inclined tube manometer. This type of inclined manometer is more
sensitive than vertical tube. Due to inclination distance moved by heavy
liquid in the right limb comparatively more. Thus it can give a higher
reading for given pressure.

Differential manometer
. It is a device used to measure the pressure difference between two points
in a pipe or in two different pipes. It consists of a U tube, containing heavy
liquid, with two ends connected by points whose pressure difference
measured.
 Types of differential manometer
• 1.Piezometer differential manometer: It consists of
two piezometer mounted at two different gauge points where the
pressure difference is to be measured . The pressure difference
between the points can be simply measured by difference in level of
liquid between two tubes. It possess some limitations in form of
piezometer.

. 2.U-tube differential manometer:- It is a device used

to measure the pressure difference between two points in pipe. It
consists of a U shaped tube containing heavy liquid . The ends are
connected at two desired points in the pipe.
• Let pressure at point A will force the heavy liquid in left limb will cause a
rise in heavy liquid in right limb.
• Pressure difference:
• PA-PB =
• 3. Inverted differential manometer:-
• In this , U tube is inverted and contains a liquid . The two ends of tube are
connected to two points.
• Let pressure at point A is more than pressure at point B.
•
 Small manometer
• It is based on principle of an inclined tube manometer. It measures very
small pressure variations . It is also called micro manometer . It is a
modified variant of simple manometer.

Advantages:
• It is simple to construct.
• It has great accuracy.
• Its cost is low.
• It measures pressure, temperature, flow etc.
• It has better sensitivity.
 Disadvantages
• It has smaller dynamic response.
• It is fragile and provide low portability.
• It has small operational limits which are in a order of 1000KN/m2.

Applications
. 1.Used in climate forecasting.
. 2. In clinical application such as blood pressure measuring and physiotherapy.
. 3. Use to construct bridges, swimming pools and other engineering purpose.
. 4. Used in maintaining of heating ventilation and air conditioning system and gas system.
 Types of flow
• 1.Laminar flow
• 2.Turbulent flow
• 3.Transition flow
1.Laminar flow :In this fluid particles move in a straight layers or in
a laminar with one layer sliding with other layer.
• It is also called viscous or streamline flow.

2.Turbulent flow: In this flow, fluid particles move in a random

manner due to increase velocity.
• Under this velocity all fluid particles get disturbed and mixed each other.

3.Transition flow: It is a state between laminar and turbulent

flow.
 Reynolds Experiment
• In 1883 Sir Osborn Reynolds performed an experiment to know about
nature of fluid flow.
• Observation:
• When velocity of fluid is low, dye filament is in straight and flow is laminar.
• When velocity of fluid is medium, filament is in zigzag motion and flow is
transition.
• When velocity of fluid is high, filament is mixed with water and flow is
turbulent.
Laminar flow:
 Reynolds number
• Reynolds number is nothing but the summarised form of reynolds
experiment . In experiment flow conditions are affected by following four
factors:
• 1.Diameter of pipe[D]
• 2.Average velocity of flow[V]
• 3.Density of liquid[
• 4.Viscosity of fluid
It can be defined as ratio of inertial forces to viscous force.
Re= Inertial forces/ viscous forces
Now if:
Re<2000:- flow will be laminar
Re>4000:- flow will be turbulent
2000<Re<4000:-flow will be transition
• Inertial forces are due to mass and velocity of fluid particles.
• Viscous forces if the frictional force due to the viscosity of fluid which
make the motion of fluid in parallel.
• At low velocities, the inertial forces are less when compared to frictional
forces.
• Resulting flow will be viscous in nature.
• Other hand inertial forces are predominant the fluid layers break up due
to increased in velocity hence turbulent flow takes place.
• Applications of Reynolds number
• 1.To predict the nature of flow in particular set of experiment.
• 2. Study of sedimentation of particles, Stokes law is used.
• 3. Rate of flow also depend on flow whether viscous or turbulent.
 Significance of Reynolds number
• To predict nature of flow.
• Heat transfer in liquid also depend on flow.
• Stock law equation is modified to include Reynolds number to study the
sedimentation rate in suspension.
 Bernoulli’s theorem
• Principle:- When law observation of energy is applied to flow of fluid then
resulting equation is called Bernoulli’s theorem. Bernoulli’s theorem states that
sum of total energy(kinetic energy, potential energy and pressure energy) per
unit volume remains constant at any cross section pipe throughout fluid flow.
• Pump generally supply energy for conveying liquid from one point to another.
• Consider such a pipe working under isothermal conditions between point A and
B.
• Total energy per unit volume at point A:
• Potential energy at point A :- m g h /V = gh
• Kinetic energy at point A:- ½ mv2/ V = 1/2 A
• Pressure energy at point PA :- P A *V/V = P A
• According to Bernoulli’s theorem :-
• g h A +1/2 u2 A + P A = Constant
•
 Total energy per unit volume at point B
• Potential energy per unit volume:- m g h / V = b
• Kinetic energy per unit volume:- ½ mu2 B / V = ½ u2 B
• Pressure energy per unit volume:- P B * V/ V = P B
• According to Bernoulli’s theorem:-
• u2 B + P B = Constant

• According to Bernoulli’s theorem the sum total

energy remains constant at any cross section:-
• g h A +1/2 u2 A + P A u2 B + P B

• hc
 Limitations
• Bernoulli ‘s equation is applicable only when:-
• Fluid is non- viscous.
• Fluid is steady (streamline).
• Fluid is incompressible.
• Friction losses are negligible.
• Applications:-
• Working of centrifugal pumps.
• Working of venturi meter, pitot tube, orifice meter etc.
• Working of Aeroplane.
• Blowing of roofs.
 Energy losses
• When energy is transformed from one form to another or moved from one
place to other or from one system to another, there is energy losses.

• Types of energy losses:-

• 1. Heat energy
• 2. Light energy
• 3. Sound energy
• 1.Heat energy:- Potentially as a result of air drag or friction heat
energy is most easily dissipated form of energy.
• 2.Light energy:- It is frequently energy seen in combustion and is a
type of wave motion.
• 3.Sound energy:-It is another type of wave motion caused by the
vibration of molecules in the air.
 Energy losses
• When a fluid flows through a pipe the fluid experience some resistance
due to which part of energy lost. This loss of energy is classified as:-
• 1.Friction losses:- It refers to resistance caused by fluid flowing
through pipe, pumps and fittings. The resistance result in decreased
pumping pressure and decreased velocity.
• Friction loss can be calculated by:-
• A = FLv2/2gD

• Where, A = Loss in pressure due to friction.

• L = Length of pipe
• g = acceleration due to gravity
• v= velocity of fluid
 Losses in fittings
• Various types of fittings in a straight pipe, cause disturbances in the flow, which result in loss of
energy. Losses in fittings may be due to change in direction or change in type of fittings such as
elbow fittings, T- fitting etc.
• Pressure loss due to fittings can be calculated as:_
• L = Kv2/ 2g

• Where, L = Pressure head loss

• K= Resistance coefficient due to fitting
• v= Velocity of fluid
• g= Acceleration due to gravity

• Enlargement loss
• If there is a sudden enlargement in pipe cross section then it result into loss of pressure head across
fitting.
• Sudden enlargement loss: H e = (u 1 - u 2 )2/ 2g
• Where e = loss in pressure head due to enlargement
• u 1 = Velocity of smaller cross section
• u 2 = velocity of larger cross section
• g= Acceleration due to gravity
 Contraction losses
• When cross section of pipe reduced suddenly, energy is lost because flow
get disturbed. For contraction loss:-
• = K u 2 2/ 2g
• e = Loss due to contraction

• K = constant
• u 2 = velocity of smaller cross section
• g = Acceleration due to gravity
 Flow meters
• Flow meters basically the devices used for measurement of rate of fluid
moving through a pipe.
• Types of flow meters:-
• 1.Orifice meter:- It is a device with a device that measures the rate of
flow through a pipe . It is a device with a hole in it that measures how fast
is recording the pressure decrease across the hole. The two most
important factors that influence the pipe which it is fitted.
• Principle:- It works on principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. The basic
principle on which orifice meter works is that reducing the cross section
area of flow passage the pressure differences created and the pressure
difference enables the determinations of rate of flow of fluid through the
pipe.
 Construction
• Orifice meter consider to be a thin plate containing a sharp aperture through which a fluid
flow.
• Normally orifice plate is placed between long straight pipes so that other fittings do not alter
the flow rate that is being measured.
• A manometer is connected at point A and B.

• Working: When a fluid stream is allowed to pass through the cross section of the orifice
the velocity of fluid at point B increases at expense of pressure head.
• As a result the pressure at point A is higher than at point B. Bernoulli’s equation provide the
basis for correlating the increase in velocity head with decrease in pressure head . This pressure
difference can be measured by manometer . Flow rate can be measured by using formula:-
• uo2- uA2= co
• u o= Velocity at point of orfice meter
• u a= Velocity at point A
• Co= coefficient of orifice
• H= Difference in pressure head
• If orifice diameter is 1/5th of pipe or even less than of u A become very
small as compared to u o & new equation :-
• u o = co

• Uses:-
• Measure flow rate of fluid.
• Maintaining and controlling flow of fluid.
• In power plant and industrial boiler, orifice meter is used to measure flow
of steam.
• Measure the flow of crude oils various petroleum products in refineries.
 Advantages

• Its cost is low than other flow meters.

• It requires less place for installation
• Construction is simple.
• Its maintenance is low.
• It offers less pressure drop.

Disadvantages
. It tends to clog thus cannot be used for viscous fluid.
. Accuracy depend on care during installation.
. It requires a single phase of liquid.
 Venturimeter
• It is a device used to measure flow rate of fluid. It works on principle of Bernoulli’s
theorem. It is widely used in chemical, water , pharmaceutics, oil industries to
measure flow rate of fluid.

• Principle:- When fluid stream is allowed to pass through narrow throat , the
velocity of the fluid increases at the venturi compared to velocity of the upstream.
This result in corresponding decrease in the pressure head.
• Bernoulli’s theorem provide the basis for correlating the increase in the velocity head
with decrease in pressure head between the points. Difference in pressure measured
by manometer if diameter of venturi is small as compared to the diameter of pipe,
velocity of fluid at point before entering the venturi may be negligible.
• Velocity of fluid at narrow constriction may be written as:-
• u v = c v 2g H
• u v = velocity at throat of venturi
• c v = coefficient of venturi meter
• difference in head from manometer
 Construction
• It consists of two tapered sections inserted in a pipeline.
• Normally a venturi meter is placed between long straight pipes, so that other fitting will not alter he flow
rate is being measured.
• Upstream cone is shorter than downstream.
• A manometer is connected between point A and B.

• Working:-
• In a venturi meter , the velocity of fluid is increased at the throat due to constriction.
• The result in decrease pressure at upstream cone.
• The pressure drop in the upstream cone is utilized to measure rate of flow using manometer.
• Venturi meter nearly confirm theoretical equations obtained for an orfice meter . An equation for venturi
meter can be written as:-
• u v 2 – u A 2= C v 2gH
• u V = Velocity at throat of venturi
• u A = velocity at point A
• C v = coefficient of venturi
• Difference in pressure head
• If diameter of venturi << diameter of pipe then u A << u v and
• u v = cv H
 Uses
• Measures the rate of flow of fluid.
• Measures flow of crude oil, natural gases etc.
• Used as reference standard for calibrating others flow meter.
• Advantages:-
• Widely used to its high resistance.
• Gives accurate measurement.
• Available in very large pipes size.
• Pressure recovery is high.
• Disadvantages:-
• Require more space.
• Its cost is high.
• Construction is complex.
 Pitot tube
• It is named after french engineer Henri pitot. It is a type of flow meter
widely used to determine airspeed of aircraft, water speed of boat and
flow velocity of liquids, air , gases in industries.

• Principle:- When the sensing element is inserted at center of

stream then velocity of flow is increased. This result in decrease in
pressure head. Tube at the right angle to flow measure pressure head
only. The tube that pointed upstream measures pressure and velocity
head difference in the above reading indicate velocity head.
• According to Bernoulli’s equation , velocity head of fluid may be obtained
by using:-
• H A = u2/2g
• u = velocity of flow at point of insertion
• H P = difference in head from manometer
 Working
• Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity head of flow.
• In this tube the velocity of fluid is increased at the narrow constriction.
• This result in decreased pressure.
• Tube at right angle to flow measured pressure head and velocity head.
• The tube that pointed upstream measures pressure and velocity head .
The difference in above reading indicate velocity head.
• Therefore reading of manometer measures velocity head.
• As seen in Bernoulli’s equation velocity head may be obtained from
equation similar to:-
• u2 = 2gg
 Advantages
• It do not contain moving part thus minimize frictional loss.
• Loss pressure is small.
• It can be easily installed in extreme environment, high temperature
conditions.

• Disadvantages
• It do not give average velocity directly.
• It is unstable for dirty and sticky fluids.
• It often require Callibrations.

• Uses
• It is used in air duct and pipe system.
• Used in aircraft to measures air flow velocity.
• It measures flow rate of fluid.
 Rotameter
• It is a device measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. It
belongs to class of meters called variables flow meter which measures
flow rate by allowing the cross sectional area the fluid travels through to
vary causing a measureable effect.

• Principle:-
• During fluid flow through the tube, the plummet rises and falls because of
variations in flow.
• As a result, the area of annular space between the plummet and the tube
varies.
• The head loss across the annular is equal to weight of plummet.
• The upper edge of plummet is used as an index to note the reading on
tapered tube. This value indicates the flow of fluid.
 Construction
• It consists of vertical tapered tube which is mounted with a narrow end
down.
• The tube is usually made of glass on which a linear scale is attached.
• A solid plummet is placed in the tube.
• The diameter of plummet is smaller than the narrow end of pipe.
• Rotameter are available with electronic transmitters for inlet recording.
• Floats of difference density are available so that 200-fold range of flow can
be measured.
• Floats may made of lead, aluminium, plastic, lead.
 Working
• As flow is upward through a tapered tube the flow of fluid varies.
• The plummet which is surrounded by fluid rises and falls depending on
rate of flow.
• During fluid flow, area of annular space between plummet and tube
varies.
• The head loss across the annular is equal to weight of plummet.
• Upper edge of plummet is used as an index to note the reading on tapered
tube.
• The area is properly calibrated to flow rate.
• The reading may be transmitted for recording, integrating and controlling.
 Advantages
• Loss of pressure is small.
• Can handle any corrosive fluid.
• Good accuracy at low flow rate.
• Provides linear scale.
• Relatively low cost.
• Condition of flow is easily visible.

• Disadvantages
• Must be installed in vertical conditions.
• Become expensive in high temperature and high pressure application.
• Limited to small pipe size and capacities.

• Uses
• Chemical industries and oil industries .
• Used for oxygen flow rate in medical areas.
• Controls supply of air in fermentation.