Name : Christina Eleanor Martin Subject : Hygiene Group : 3 Course : 4th year 1st sem

Definition
Ionizing radiationconsists ofparticles or

electromagnetic waves(which always have a particle nature as well, asphotons) that are energetic enough to detachelectrons fromatoms ormolecules, thusionizing them. Ionizing radiation is energy that is carried by any of several types of particles and rays (electromagnetic radiation) given off by radioactive material, Xray machines, and nuclear reactions. This energy can knock electrons out of molecules with which they interact, thus creating ions.

Examples of ionizing particles arealpha

particles,beta particles,neutrons, andcosmic rays. The ability of anelectromagnetic wave(photons) to ionize an atom or molecule depends on its frequency, which determines the energy of its associated particle, thephoton. Radiation on the short-wavelength end of the electromagnetic spectrumhigh frequencyultraviolet,x-rays, andgamma rays is ionizing, due to their composition of high-energy photons. Lower-energy radiation, such as visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, are not ionizing.

Types
The three main types of ionizing radiation are

alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. ALPHA : An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. Because of its relatively large mass and charge, an alpha particle produces ions in a very localized area An alpha particle has a short range (several centimeters) in air and cannot penetrate the outer layer of skin.

BETA : Beta particles can be either negative

(negatron) or positive (positron). Negatrons are identical to electrons and originate in the nucleus of an atom that undergoes radioactive decay by changing a neutron into a proton. Beta particles are smaller and more penetrating than alpha particles, but their range in tissue is still quite limited.

GAMMA : Gamma rays are electromagnetic

radiation given off by an atom as a means of releasing excess energy. They are bundles (quanta) of energy that have no charge or mass and can travel long distances through air (up to several hundred meters), body tissue, and other materials. A gamma ray can pass through a body without hitting anything, or it may hit an atom and give that atom all or part of its energy. This normally knocks an electron out of the atom, ionizing it.

Sources
Natural background radiation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

cosmic radiation solar radiation external terrestrial sources radiation in the human body Radon

Cosmic radiation
The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly

bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of positively-charged ions fromprotonstoironnuclei. This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, includingx-rays,muons, protons,alpha particles,pions,electrons, andneutrons.

External terrestrial sources Most materials on Earth contain some radioactive atoms, even if in small quantities. Most of the dose received from these sources is from gamma-ray emitters in building materials, or rocks and soil when outside. The majorradionuclidesof concern forterrestrial radiationare isotopes ofpotassium,uranium, andthorium. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the birth of the Earth so that our present dose from potassium-40 is about what it would have been at the dawn oflife on Earth.

Radon
Radon-222 is produced by the decay ofradium-

226 which is present wherever uranium is found. Since radon is a gas, it seeps out of uraniumcontaining soils found across most of the world and may accumulate in well-sealed homes.

Units
The ionizing effects of radiation are measured

by units of exposure: 1.Thecoulomb perkilogram(C/kg) is theSIunit of ionizing radiation exposure, and measures the amount of radiation required to create 1 coulomb ofchargeof each polarity in 1 kilogram of matter. 2.Theroentgen(R) is an older traditional unit that is almost out of use, which represented the amount of radiation required to liberate 1esuof charge of each polarity in 1 cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 Roentgen =
4

The amount of damage done to matter (especially living

tissue) by ionizing radiation is more closely related to the amount ofenergydeposited rather than the charge. 1. Thegray(Gy), with units J/kg, is theSIunit of absorbed dose, which represents the amount of radiation required to deposit 1jouleof energy in 1kilogramof any kind of matter. 2. Therad(radioactivity absorbed dose), is the corresponding traditional unit which is 0.01 J deposited per kg. 100 rad = 1 Gy. 3. Thesievert(Sv) is theSIunit of equivalent dose. Although it has the same units asgrays, J/kg, it measures something different. It is the dose of a given type of radiation in Gy that has the same biological effect on a human as 1 Gy ofx-raysorgamma radiation. 4. Therem(Roentgen equivalent man) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. 1 sievert = 100 rem. Because the rem is a relatively large unit, typical equivalent dose is measured in millirem (mrem),
3 6

Human Made sources

rays,nuclear medicine, andradiation therapyare by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the majorradionuclidesused areI131,Tc-99,Co-60,Ir-192, andCs-137. The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products, such astobacco(polonium-210), building materials, combustible fuels (gas,coal, etc.), televisions, luminouswatchesand dials (tritium), airportXraysystems,smoke detectors(americium), road construction materials, electron tubes,fluorescent lampstarters, andlanternmantles (thorium). In anuclear war,gamma raysfromfalloutofnuclear weaponswould probably cause the largest number of casualties.

Biological effects
1. Cells experience DNA damage and are able to detect

and repair the damage. 2. Cells experience DNA damage and are unable to repair the damage. These cells may go through the process of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, thus eliminating the potential genetic damage from the larger tissue. 3. Cells experience a nonlethal DNA mutation that is passed on to subsequent cell divisions. This mutation may contribute to the formation of a cancer. 4. Cells experience "irreparable DNA damage." Low level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer.

Effects
High doses of ionizing radiation can lead to effects such

as skin burns, hair loss, birth defects, illness, cancer, and death, depending on the dose and the period of time over which it is received. Acute doses (such as from a serious accident involving nuclear materials) can result in damage to the bloodforming organs, gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous system. Very high doses, e.g., on the order of 500 rem (or 500,000 mrem) or more, can cause death in many (but not all) individuals, depending on the degree of medical intervention. The main health concern associated with radiation exposure is the induction of various cancers. Additional effects may include genetic mutations (although none have been observed in humans) and teratogenic effects such as mental retardation.

Prevention

Monitoring exposure
The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation, but a

range of instruments exists which are capable of detecting even very low levels of radiation. Dosimeters measure an absolute dose received over a period of time. Ion-chamber dosimeters resemble pens, and can be clipped to one's clothing. Film-badge dosimeters enclose a piece of photographic film, which will become exposed as radiation passes through it. Ion-chamber dosimeters must be periodically recharged, and the result logged. Another type of dosimeter is the TLD (Thermoluminescent Dosimeter). These dosimeters contain crystals that emit visible light when heated, in direct proportion to their total radiation exposure. Like ionchamber dosimeters, TLDs can be re-used after they have been 'read'. Geiger countersandscintillation counters measure the dose rate of ionizing radiation directly.

Limiting exposure

There are four standard ways to limit exposure: 1. Time: For people who are exposed to radiation in addition to natural

background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the radiation source. according to aninverse square law(in an absolute vacuum) .

2. Distance: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance x, 3. Air substantially attenuates alpha and beta radiation. 4. Shielding: Barriers oflead,concrete, or water give effective

protection from radiation formed of energetic particles such asgamma raysandneutrons. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or byremote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are specialplastic shields which stop beta particles and air will stop alpha particles. Some generally accepted thicknesses of attenuating material are 5 mm of aluminum for Beta particles, and 3 inches of lead for gamma radiation.

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