DIGITAL DESIGN

BY
HARSHAVARDHAN
Digital Design is divided into two parts:-
1.Combinational circuits:
The circuits output depends on the present input signal only

2. Sequential circuits:
The circuit whose output depends on the present value of its input signals
and on the sequence of past inputs
1.Combinational circuits: 2. Sequential circuits:
i. Number systems i. Latches and Flip-Flops
ii. Boolean algebra ii. Counters
iii. Minimization technique iii. Registers and Shift
iv. Digital arithmetic circuits Registers
v. Mux and De-mux iv. Frequency Divider Circuits
vi. Decoders and encoders v. Frequency Multiplier
vii. Comparator circuits Circuits
viii.Code Converters vi. Edge Detectors
vii. Finite state Machine
 1.Combinational circuits
i. Number System:
The type of numbers that we provide to the circuits, which helps to give outputs

We have 4 types of number systems:

• Binary: A number system designed to represent numbers using only 0 and 1 as its digits.
• Octal: A base-8 number system that uses digits from 0-7 to represent numbers.
• Decimal: A base-10 number system that uses digits from 0-9 to represent numbers.
• Hexadecimal: a base-16 number system that uses 16 symbols to represent numbers:
Symbols: 0–9 and A–F
Meaning: 0–9 represent their decimal values, and A–F represent 10–15

ii. Boolean Algebra:

Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra that deals with variables that have two values:
true (1) and false (0).
We use this to represent the switching and reduction of gates.
Basic Operations:-
• Not Gate: A` (The result is the opposite of the operand’s value.)
• And Gate: A.B (The result is true if both operands are true. Otherwise, it is false.)
• OR Gate: A+B (The result is true if at least one operand is true. Otherwise, it is false.)
Boolean Laws and Rules:
iii. Minimization technique:
In digital design, minimization is the process of simplifying Boolean expressions and logic netlist
structures to reduce the cost and complexity of a circuit. This is done to improve performance and
optimize circuits.

Some of the technique are:

• K-Map method: Karnaugh maps are used to simplify real-world logic requirements so that
they can be implemented using the minimal number of logic gates.

• Algebraic manipulation: Algebraic manipulation is the process of simplifying or making

algebraic expressions easier to manage.

• Quine-McCluskey algorithm: The Quine-McCluskey algorithm uses a given function , which

contains the sum of min-terms or the sum of the products (SOP) to determine a simplified and
reduced equivalent.
iv. Digital Arithmetic Circuits:

Digital arithmetic circuits are a type of digital circuit that perform arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. They are made up of gates that are connected
to perform arithmetic actions on numbers that are inputted separately. The output of the circuit is
the result of the arithmetic operation. Some examples of digital arithmetic circuits include:
• Full Adder/Subtractor
• Half Adder/Subtractor
• BCD Adder/Subtractor, etc.

v. MUX and DEMUX:

A multiplexer (MUX) and a demultiplexer (DEMUX) are digital logic

circuits that work together to combine and separate data signals:
•Multiplexer (MUX): Combines multiple data signals into one output
signal. A MUX can select a single signal from many based on control inputs.
•Demultiplexer (DEMUX): Takes a single input signal and splits it into multiple outputs. A
DEMUX works in the opposite way to a MUX
vi. (a) Decoders :

A decoder is a combinational logic circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a
maximum of 2^n unique output lines. In other words, it takes a binary input and activates one of
several outputs based on that input.

Types of Decoders:

Binary Decoder: Converts a binary number into a single active output line.
Example: A 2-to-4 decoder has 2 input lines and 4 output lines. If the inputs are 01, the second
output line is activated.

BCD Decoder (Binary-Coded Decimal): Decodes a 4-bit binary input into one of 10 outputs,
representing decimal digits 0 through 9.
Example: A 4-to-10 BCD decoder has 4 inputs and 10 outputs. For an input of 1010 (binary for
10), none of the outputs should be activated, as it’s not a valid BCD digit.

Decimal Decoder: Decodes a 3-bit binary input into one of 8 outputs, commonly used in
applications where you need to display decimal digits.
(b) Encoders:
An encoder is a combinational logic circuit that performs the reverse operation of a decoder. It
converts 2^n input lines into an n-bit binary representation. In essence, it compresses the data
from multiple inputs into fewer outputs.

Types of Encoders:

Binary Encoder:
• Converts 2^n input lines into an n-bit binary code.
• Example: A 4-to-2 binary encoder takes 4 inputs and produces 2 output lines. If the third
input is active, the output would be 10.

Priority Encoder:
• Similar to a binary encoder but with a priority scheme to determine which input to encode if
multiple inputs are active.
• Example: A 4-input priority encoder will prioritize the highest active input.
vii. Comparator circuits:

A comparator circuit compares two voltages and outputs either a 1

(the voltage at the plus side; VDD in the illustration) or a 0 (the
voltage at the negative side) to indicate which is larger. Comparators are often used, for example,
to check whether an input has reached some predetermined value.

viii. Code Converters:

Code Converters are the digital circuits or algorithms that are designed to translate data
representation from one format to the other format. Let’s take binary to gray code converters. The
binary-to-Gray code converter takes binary input and translates it to its corresponding gray code
representation.
Binary-Grey/Gray-Binary
conversion example
 2.Sequential circuits
i. (a) Latches:

• Latches are basic storage elements that operate with signal levels (rather than signal
transitions).
• Latches controlled by a clock transition are flip-flops. Latches are level-sensitive devices.
• Latches are useful for the design of the asynchronous sequential circuit.
• Latches are sequential circuit with two stable states. These are sensitive to the input voltage
applied and does not depend on the clock pulse. Flip flops that do not use clock pulse are
referred to as latch.

Types of latches are:

• SR Latches.
• Gated SR Latches.
• D Latches.
• Gated D Latches.
• JK Latches.
• T Laches.
(b) Flip-Flops:

• The flip-flop is a circuit that maintains a state until directed by input to change the state.
• A basic flip-flop can be constructed using four-NAND or four-NOR gates.
• Flip-flop is popularly known as the basic digital memory circuit. It has its two states as logic
1(High) and logic 0(low) states.
• A flip flop is a sequential circuit which consist of single binary state of information or data.

Types of Flip Flop

• SR Flip Flop
• JK Flip Flop
• D Flip Flop
• T Flip Flop
ii. Counters:

• A Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular
event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.
• Counters are used in digital electronics for counting purpose, they can count specific event
happening in the circuit. For example, in UP counter a counter increases count for every rising
edge of clock.
• The main properties of a counter are timing , sequencing , and counting.
• Counter works in two modes:
o Up counter
o Down counter

Counters are broadly divided into two categories:

 Asynchronous counter
 Synchronous counter

Asynchronous Counter:
In asynchronous counter we don’t use universal clock, only first flip flop is driven by main clock
and the clock input of rest of the following flip flop is driven by output of previous flip flops.
 It is evident from timing diagram that Q0 is changing as soon as the rising edge of
clock pulse is encountered, Q1 is changing when rising edge of Q0 is
encountered(because Q0 is like clock pulse for second flip flop) and so on. In this
way ripples are generated through Q0,Q1,Q2,Q3 hence it is also
called RIPPLE counter and serial counter. A ripple counter is a cascaded
arrangement of flip flops where the output of one flip flop drives the clock input of
the following flip flop

Synchronous counter:
Unlike the asynchronous counter, synchronous counter has one global clock which drives each flip flop so
output changes in parallel. The one advantage of synchronous counter over asynchronous counter is, it can
operate on higher frequency than asynchronous counter as it does not have cumulative delay because of same
clock is given to each flip flop. It is also called as parallel counter.

From circuit diagram we see that Q0 bit gives

response to each falling edge of clock while Q1
is dependent on Q0, Q2 is dependent on Q1 and
Q0 , Q3 is dependent on Q2,Q1 and Q0.
iii. (a) Registers:

A Register is a collection of flip flops. A flip flop is used to store single bit digital data. For storing
a large number of bits, the storage capacity is increased by grouping more than one flip flops. If we
want to store an n-bit word, we have to use an n-bit register containing n number of flip flops.
The register is used to perform different types of operations. For performing the operations, the
CPU use these registers. The faded inputs to the system will store into the registers. The result
returned by the system will store in the registers.

Type of register:
(b) Shift Registers:
• Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1 or 0). However, in order to store
multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip-flops. N flip flops are to be connected in order to
store n bits of data.
• A Register is a device that is used to store such information. It is a group of flip-flops
connected in series used to store multiple bits of data. The information stored within these
registers can be transferred with the help of shift registers.
• Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple bits of data. The bits stored in such
registers can be made to move within the registers and in/out of the registers by applying clock
pulses. An n-bit shift register can be formed by connecting n flip-flops where each flip-flop
stores a single bit of data.
• The registers which will shift the bits to the left are called “Shift left registers”. The registers
which will shift the bits to the right are called “Shift right registers”. Shift registers are
basically of following types.

Types of Shift Registers

• Serial In Serial Out shift register
• Serial In parallel Out shift register
• Parallel In Serial Out shift register
• Parallel In parallel Out shift register
THANK YOU