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INDEX
Chapter 1.STONES AND SAND
Chapter 2.BRICKS AND TILES BUILDING
MATERIALS
Chapter 3.CEMENT
Chapter 4.MORTAR AND CONCRETE
Chapter 5.SURFACE PROTECTIVE MATERIALS
Chapter 6.TIMBER, PLASTICS, GLASS & ASBESTOS

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Chapter 1.STONES AND SAND
(a)Classification of Rocks, physical classification only.
(b)Characteristics of good building stone.
(c) Common varieties of stones-granite, Marble, Kadapa slab, Shahabad
stones.
(d) Dressing of stones - purpose.
(e) Characteristics of good sand.
(f) Functions of sand.
(g) Bulking of sand

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What is a rock?
• Solid mass of different types of minerals
which forms the earth’s crust is known as
Rock

What is stone?
• Naturally available construction material
quarried and extracted from the rock is
stone
• The properties of stones depend on parent
rock

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ROCK Forming Minerals:

•Minerals are naturally occuring inorganic substances having

definite atomic structure and chemical composition.

•Silicates are the most abundant compounds consisting the rock

forming minerals.

•Other compounds in the diminishing quantities are: Oxides,

Carbonates, Phosphates, Sulphates etc.,

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Classification of rocks is done on the
basis of

i. Geological formation

ii. Physical characteristics

iii. Chemical composition

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 Geological Classification of Rocks

Geological classification of rocks refers to the process

of categorizing rocks into distinct groups based on
their composition, texture, and formation processes.

This classification helps geologists understand the

origin, evolution, and relationships between
different types of rocks.

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Sedimentary rocks: Formed
from the accumulation and
compression of sediments,
such as mineral particles,
organic matter, or rock
fragments. Examples include
shale, limestone, and
sandstone.

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Metamorphic rocks: Formed
when existing rocks are
transformed by heat, pressure,
and chemical reactions,
resulting in changes to their
mineral composition and
structure.
Examples include marble,
slate, and quartzite.

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2.Physical Classification of Rocks
• This classification is based on the physical properties like structure, indicating
the arrangement of particles of rocks. Physically rocks are classified in the
following three ways.

• (a) Un-Stratified rocks

• (b) Stratified rocks
• (c) Foliated rocks

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2.Physical Classification of Rocks
• (a) Un-Stratified rocks: The
rocks which do not show
definite signs of layers and
cannot be splited up into layers
are called un-stratified rocks.
Trap

• Example: Granite, Basalt, Trap

etc.

Granite Marble

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(b) Stratified rocks: The rocks which show distinct signs of
layers and can be easily splitted up into layers are called stratified
rocks.
Example: Sand Stone, Lime stone etc.

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Sand stone Lime stone
(c) Foliated rocks: The rocks which can be splitted up into thin
sheets are known as foliated rocks.
Example: State, Schist etc.

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Chemical Classification of Rocks
This is based on the chemical composition of rocks. Chemically,
rocks are classified into the following three types.

(a)Siliceous rocks

(b) Argillaceous rocks

(c) Calcareous rocks

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(a) Siliceous rocks: The rocks having silica (SiO₂) as their major constituent
are called siliceous rocks.Example: Granite, sand stone, Gneiss, Quartzite etc.

(b) Argillaceous rocks: The rocks having alumina (Al2O3) or clay as their
major constituent are known as argillaceous rocks. They are brittle but hard
anddurable.Example: Slate, Laterite, Porphyry etc.

(c) Calcareous rocks: The rocks having calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or lime as
their major constituent are called calcareous rocks.Examples: Lime stone,
Dolomite, Marble, Gravel.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES
1.Structure of stone
Structure of stone indicates the composition of its mineral
matter and their internal arrangement
• Should have uniform structure

• Should be free from cavities, cracks, patches etc.,

• Igneous rock has uniform structure

• Igneous rock can take more load

• Igneous rock is most suitable for construction works

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2.Texture of stone
Texture of stone indicates the pattern in which the mineral
matter is arranged in the stone

• Homogeneous and crystalline in structure

• Hard and compact

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 3.Durability

• Resist the effect of atmospheric agencies like

• wind,
• rain,
• temperature etc

• It depends on Chemical composition and Physical

structure

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 4. Hardness
• Resistance against abrasive forces developed due to
friction, wear and tear is known as hardness

• Expressed in Number

• It varies from 1 to 10

• More the number Harder is the stone

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 5..Strength

• Resistance against crushing.

• A good stone withstand higher loads.

• Crushing strength varies between 15 to 100 N/mm2.

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 6.Toughness

• Resistance against impact

• Should be hard and tough

• Tough enough to withstand stresses developed due to

vibration of machinery, moving loads over them

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 7.Porosity and absorption

• Should be less porous

• Highly porous stones disintegrate as the absorbed water

may freeze and expand which results in cracking.

• Should not absorb more than 5% of water by volume when

immersed in water for 24 hours

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 8.Specific gravity

• Ranges between 2.4 to 2.8

• Higher Specific gravity stones are preferred for Dams,

bridges, weirs etc

• Less specific gravity stones are preferred for domes and

roof covers etc

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 9.Resistance to Fire
• Should constitute minerals having equal coefficient of
thermal expansion for better resistance to fire

• Such stone is preferred for Construction

Example : sand stone

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10.Resistance to Electricity
• Good building stones should offer greater resistance to
electricity.

• Dry stone - Good resistance

• More porous stone - Less resistance

• Dense stones with low porosity - Preferred

Examples : Marble, slate

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 11.Seasoning

• Removal of quarry sap (internal moisture) is called

seasoning.

• Moisture make a stone soft and damages it.

• For effective seasoning stone is to be left for a period of 6

to 12 months in the presence of air and sun light.

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 12.Dressing
• Dressing is bringing the stone to proper shape and size

• Dressing is essential for ornamental and structural work

like arches, corbels, sills etc

• The stone becomes weak in strength and durability when

it undergoes dressing

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 13.Appearance

• Important for the facing work of the building

• Uniform texture

• Light in colour

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 14.Workability

Ease with which the stones can be handled

• Cut

• Dressed to different sizes

• Should be economical to dress

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15.Cost
• Depends on
- Type of stone
- Method of quarrying
- Transportation distance
- Mode of transport

• Select best and economical stone.

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 Common varieties of stones used in construction work
• Granite

• Basalt & Trap

• Marble

• Sand Stone

• Lime stone
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Granite: This stone is a common variety of Igneous rocks.
It is formed by solidification of magma below the earth's surface at the place of its
origin.
It is physically unstratified and chemically siliceous in nature. It is mainly
composed of quartz and felspars mixed with particles of mica.

Properties:
It is hard, very strong and durable.
 Its crushing strength is 100 to 140 N/Sq. mm.
Colour is grey, green pink, red and sometimes black according to the
colour of felspar.
Specific gravity is high (2.6 to 2.65).

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 Its weight is nearly 26.4 kN/Cu.m.Less porous
(porosity less than 1%).
 Fine grained and can take a good polish.
 Texture is crystalline, uniform and dense.
 Workability is less and costly to dress.
 Not resistant against fire.

USES: Mainly used as large building blocks for heavy engineering works, such as
piers and abutments of bridges, light houses, harbours etc.Its fine grained quality
is used for decorative, monumental facing works where high polish is desired

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Marble: This is a most common variety of
metamorphic rock. It is formed from crystallised lime
stone by metamorphism. Chemically, it is calcareous
and is mainly composed of calcium carbonate.
Properties:
Crushing strength: 50 to 60 N/sq. mm
Colour of marble is white, but also available in
different shades of colours such as grey, black, pink,
red, brown, yellow, green, blue and combination of
these.
 Structure: Compact and crystalline due to which it can take a fine polish
 Less durableCan be carved easily and is most suitable for sculpture work.
 Specific gravity: 2.72 and weight: 27.2 kN/Cu.m.
 Absorption: 1 to 3%

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USES: Mainly used for ornamental and
highly specialised building work as in
columns, stair cases, metal pieces, table slabs,
window sills, floor finishings, steps etc. Also
used for electrical switch boards, wall lining
and other decorative purposes.

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Cuddapah Slabs: These are fine
grained, low grade metamorphic
rocks. They are derived from
argillaceous rocks such as clay, mud
stone and shale. The metamorphism
carried so perfectly that original
planes of stratification are formed into
cleavage planes. This enables to split
into thin slabs. They are composed of
silica and alumina.

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Shahabad Stones: These are
naturally occuring stones. Initially,
shahabad stone is rough and can be
made polished by machine. As such,
shahabad is classified into two types
a) rough shahabad and b) polished
shahabad. They are available in dark
colours like greyish black and also in
light colours like dull white. They are
sufficiently strong and mainly used for
flooring of basements, parkings,
godowns etc.

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River Sand:It is obtained from the
beds and banks of river. River
Sand is fine, round and polished
due to rubbing action of water
current. This sand has got reduced
adhesive value. River Sand
containing earthy impurities,
gravels etc. Must be screened and
washed. It is more white in colour,
globular in shape and smaller in
size than Pit Sand. Hence it is
more suitable for plastering.
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Pit Sand:It is obtained from pits dug and
consists of sharp angular grains free from
salts. Clay and other impurities may
impart colour to this sand. Pit sand
should be screened and washed before
using it. Fine Pit Sand should not leave
any stain on the fingers when rubbed
between them. Large grained sands are
usually better than small grained ones.
Due to its angular shape it forms a very
good material for making lime and
cement mortar used in masonry.
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Sea Sand:It is also fine, round and
polished due to rubbing under the
action of water current. But the
presence of salts (chlorides) makes it
unsuitable for making mortars. It is the
worst of the three types. Sea salts in
this sand attract moisture from the
atmosphere and cause permanent
dampness. It also causes efflorescence
(formation of white patches on the
surface due to salts) and disintegrates
the work. The salts present in the Sea
Sand also retard the setting of cement.

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BULKING OF SAND The increase in the
volume of sand due to an increase in moisture
content is known as the bulking of sand. A
film of water is created around the sand
particles which forces the particles to get
aside from each other and thus the volume is
increased.

Bulking of sand is maximum at 4.6%

moisture content . Maximum moisture content
(in percentage) based on the sand is
5%.Note:Five to eight percent of the increase
in moisture in the sand can increase the
volume of sand up to 20 to 40 percent.

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ROBO SAND
In some localities where sand is not available,
stone crushings (granular dust) is used as a
substitute for sand in making mortar or concrete.
This is very cheap, readily available in some
localities. Crushed stone powder should be sieved
before using so that the size of particles do not
exceed 4.75 mm. This aggregate gives
appreciable strength if proper care is taken to
avoid excess amount of water for getting
workability. In obtaining dense concrete, crushed
stone powder is very much useful if proper care is
taken to have reasonable void ratio. Robo sand is
the trade name for crused stone powder.

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IMPORTANT QUESIONS
1. State the physical classification of rocks.: Physical
classification of Rocks: Ans(a)Igneous (b) Sedimentary (c)
Metamorphic.2. State the difference between stratified rocks
and foliated rocks.Ans: Stratified rocks are sedimentary rocks,
whereas the foliated rocks are metamorphic rocks.3. State any
two properties and two uses of cuddapah slabs.Ans: Properties
of cuddapah slabs (stones):They are long lasting, slip resistant,
oil resistant and low maintenance is required.Uses: It is used in
making of slabs, tiles, cladding material, bricks, cobbles, curb
stones etc.4. State any four properties of marble.Ans:
Properties of marble:1. It has high solubility and low
hardness.2. Its texture is granular or granuloblastic.3. It has the
ability to polish.5. Define the term 'dressing of stones'.Ans:
Dressing of stones: It is a process of providing a proper shape,
size and smooth finish to the rough surfaced broken stone
which is collected from a quarry.6. What is meant by durability
of a stone ?Ans: Durability of stones: It is the ability of stone to
withstand wear, light, humidity etc.7. List any three common
varieties of stones.Ans: Three common varieties of stones:(a)
Marble(b) Granite(c) limestone.
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SIZE OF A BRICK

In India, a brick of standard size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm is recommended by the Bureau of Indian

Standards.

With mortar thickness added to it, the size of the brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm and known

as the nominal size of the modular brick.

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick
masonry are:
1.Stretcher bond 2.Header bond 3.English bond and 4.Flemish
bond

Stretcher bond
Header bond
English Bond
Flemish Bond
SITE SELECTION FOR MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS

For the manufacturing of bricks, the site should be selected based on some important

considerations such as:

The ground should be of plain surface.

The site should be connected with communicating roads for transporting materials etc.,

Good brick earth should be easily available.

The site should offer all facilities to the workers.

Manufacturing process of bricks

There are four different operations are involved in the process of

manufacturing of bricks:

1.Preparation of clay.

2.Molding

3.Drying

4.Burning
PREPARATION OF CLAY
The clay for brick is prepared in the following order.
• UNSOILING
• DIGGING
• CLEANING
• WEATHERING
• BLENDING
• TEMPERING
UNSOILING: The top layer of the soil, about 200mm in depth, is taken out and thrown
away. The clay in top soil is full of impurities and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of
preparing bricks.
WEATHERING: The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening and mellowing
DIGGING: The clay is then dug out from the ground. It is spread on the levelled ground, just
a little deeper than the general level. The height of heaps of clay is about 600mm to 1200mm.
CLEANING: The clay as obtained in the process of digging should be cleaned of stones,
pebbles, vegetable matters. If these particles are in excess, the clay is to be washed and
screened to atmosphere for softening and mellowing.
BLENDING: The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it , is spread out at its
top. The blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing.
TEMPERING: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper degree of
hardness and it is made fit for the next operation of moulding .Kneaded or pressed under the
feet of man or cattle .
MOLDS FOR CLAY BRICK
MANUFACTURING
Wrought iron mould

Mould dimensions
20 x 10 x 10 cm
Wooden Moulds

Mould dimensions
20 x 10 x 10 cm
Molding of clay for brick manufacturing
In the molding process, prepared clay is mold into brick shape (generally rectangular). This process can be done in
two ways according to scale of project.
•Hand molding ( for small scale)
•Machine molding ( for large scale)
In hand molding again there are two types and they are
1.Ground molded bricks
2.Table-molded bricks
Ground molded bricks
In this process of ground molding, first level the ground and sand or ash is sprinkled over it.
Now place the wet mold in the ground and filled it with tempered clay and press hard to fill all corners of the
mold. Extra clay is removed with metal strike or wood strike or with wire.
The mold is then lifted up and we have raw brick in the ground. And again wet the mold by dipping it in
water and repeat the same process. The process of dipping mold every time to make bricks is called slop
molding.
Sometimes, the inside surface of mold is sprinkled with sand or ash instead of dipping in water this is called
sand molding
Frog mark of bricks are made by using a pair of pallet boards. Frog mark means the mark of depth which is
placed on raw brick while molding. The depth may be 10mm to 20mm.
Table molded bricks
This process is similar to ground molding process, but here the bricks on molded on the table of size 2m x 1m.
Ground molding is economical when compared to table molding.
Machine molding of bricks
The bricks required are in large quantity, then machine molding is economical and also saves more time. Here
also we are having two types of machines
1.Plastic clay machines
2.Dry clay machines
Drying of raw bricks
After molding process the bricks contain some amount of moisture in it. So, drying is to be done
otherwise they may cracked while burning. The drying of raw bricks is done by natural or artificial
process.
The bricks are laid in stacks. A stack consists 8 to 10 stairs. The bricks in these stacks should be
arranged in such a way that circulation of air in between the bricks is free.
The period of drying may be 3 to 10 days. It also depends upon the weather conditions.
The drying yards are also prepared on higher level than the normal ground for the prevention of bricks
from rain water.
In artificial burning for Some situations artificial drying is adopted under special dryers or hot

gases.
Burning of bricks
In the process of burning, the dried bricks are burned either in clamps (small scale) or kilns
(large scale) up to certain degree temperature. In this stage, the bricks will gain hardness and
strength so it is important stage in manufacturing of bricks.
The temperature required for burning is about 1100oC. If they burnt beyond this limit they
will be brittle and easy to break. If they burnt under this limit, they will not gain full strength
and there is a chance to absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Hence burning should be done properly to meet the requirements of good brick.
CLAMP BURNING
KILN BURNING
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