Structure of Predication

Meeting 5

Some administrative matters

Have U visited the blog and contributed something? If no, youd better start soon.

 The basic structure of structure of predication is: Subject + Predicate But is it always like this? What do you think?

 The subject and predicate can be either of the following: - a single word - a word with accompanying function words - a phrase, or - one of the syntactic structures: modification, complementation, or coordination

 Specifically the subject can be a structure of predication also which is defined as included clause The predicate consists of a verb and a verb phrase in key position Examples: - Money talks - Courtesy always pays - The sun sets in the west

 A predicate can be filled by a structure of complementation, such as: - the snow was cold - The clerk sold me the shirt - My neighbour painted his house green A predicate can also consist of a structure of coordination, such as: - We walked and talked - People either like this place or hate it

 So we can temporarily conclude that: predicate has verb component in it either as a single verb though seldom or a more or less complex structure with the verb at its core or the heart of the matter.

 Thus it needs to be clearly known that VERB is classified into seven heads: - person - tense - phase - aspect - mode - voice, and - status

 In terms of person, verb can be classified in common and third singular. Examples: the man walks, he feels, this looks good, the tall man in the car drives, eating candy causes tooth decay, what I want costs money, either his mistakes or his bad luck keeps him poor.

 In terms of Tense, there are two tenses: common (present) and past (preterit). They are shown by the inflexion attached to the verbs: Common: base / base + (-s), while Past: (base + (-ed). The be has its exceptional forms (is, am, are: present and was, were: past)

 In terms of Phase, there are two phases: simple and perfect (have + past participle verb). Examples: - I speak vs I have spoken - We work vs We have worked

 In terms of Aspect, there are three: - simple: the verb is unmarked - durative: be + base+ing - inchoative: get+ present participle

 In terms of Mode, it can be seen from: - the modal auxiliaries + base form: must go, may come, should see,etc., and - certain other auxiliaries + infinitive (to+base form): used to study, ought to come, have to go, etc.

 In terms of Voice, there are two voices: Active and passive voices. Passive is formed by the aux. be + past participle verb or get+ past participle verb. Examples:
- He kills he is killed/He gets killed - They built a house A house was built - We have done the work The work has been done

 Can you analyze these two? - The man was informed by his wife - The man was informed about politics

 In terms of status, verbs has four statues: affirmative, interrogative, negative, and negative interrogative. Examples: - He is working He works - He is not working He does not work - Is he working? Does he work? - Isnt he working? Doesnt he work?

 Whats the difference between Doesnt he work? And Does he not work?

Functions in the Verb Phrase (VP) Head: V Dependents:

Pre-head modifier: AdvP Post-head modifier: AdvP/PP (Post-head) complement: NP/PP/AdvP/clause

S Subject:NP Tense:AUX Predicate:VP head:V PtHdMod:AdvP The boy has S Subject:NP Tense:AUX Predicate:VP PrHdMod:AdvP The boy has very quickly V run run very quickly

Types of Complement in the VP

Direct Object: NP Indirect Object: NP Prepositional Phrase Complement (PPC): PP Subject Predicative Complement (PCS): NP/AdjP Object Predicative Complement (PCO): NP/AdjP

Post-head modifiers in VP are often referred to as adjuncts

Direct Object (DO) Function in VP

The direct object function is filled by NP The dogs chased the cats. If the direct object is a pronoun, the pronoun is in Accusative case form. The dogs chased them. (*they) In basic sentences, the direct object NP comes immediately after the verb *The dogs chased [quickly] them. Exception: if there is also an indirect object NP The boy bought [the girl] an icecream.

Unlike PP complements in NPs and AdjPs the direct object (DO) NP is usually obligatory in English The boy discovered the treasure. The boy discovered it. *The boy discovered.

The discovery of the treasure The discovery

Indirect Object (IO) function in VP

Indirect object (IO) function is only filled by NP IO follows V and precedes DO I gave my brother [a new bicycle]. The IO pronoun is Accusative (or Reflexive) Accusative IO I baked him a cake Reflexive IO I baked myself a cake

Preposition Phrase Complement in VP (PPC)

a PP may fill a complement function in a VP It may be the only complement
John relies on his friend.

It may follow an NP (DO) complement

John put [the book] on the table.

As with PP complements in an NP or AdjP, the choice of preposition is restricted by the verb.

relies on/*in/*from; believes in/*on/*about

Subjective Predicative Complement (PCS)

PCS is filled by NP or by AdjP PCS comes directly after the verb The PCS describes an attribute or property of the referent of the subject NP Compare: The man saw a doctor. (DO) The man became a doctor. (PCS) *The man saw very clever. (DO) The man became very clever. (PCS)

Another property of PCS

If the PCS is a NP, it normally agrees with the subject NP The gentleman is a lawyer. The gentlemen are lawyers. *The gentleman is lawyers. *The gentlemen are a lawyer. Only a limited set of verbs take an NP as PCS:
be, become, seem, look, resemble...

Tests to distinguish PCS from DO

Test 1 - Substitution Marjorie looked a fright. PCS can be NP or AdjP. DO can only be NP. Can you replace the NP with an AdjP? Marjorie looked frightful /angry /very sad. Therefore - PCS.

Tests to distinguish PCS from DO

Test 2 - Agreement The doctor seems a nice man. PCS must agree with the subject. DO does not agree with the subject The doctor saw a nice man/nice men. Can you make the NP plural? *The doctor seems nice men. Therefore - PCS.

Objective Predicative Complement (PCO)

Similar to PCS in many respects, but a PCO describes an attribute of the DO of a sentence.
We consider Subj Verb him our leader. DO PCO

The PCO function is filled by NP or AdjP.

We consider him very trustworthy.

An NP in the PCO function agrees in number with the DO phrase.

We consider them our leaders.

Distinguish PCO construction from IO construction VP p V NP NP

We consider him our leader. (DO PCO) We gave him our leader. (IO DO)

Substitute AdjP for NP if PCO

We consider him very stong.

Cannot substitute AdjP for NP if DO

*We gave him very strong.

Distinguish PCO construction from IO construction

VP p V NP NP
We consider him our leader. (DO PCO) We gave him our leader. (IO DO)

DO NP and PCO NP agree in number

We consider him our leader. (singular) We consider them our leaders. (plural)

No number agreement between IO and DO

We gave him our leader/leaders. We gave them our leader/leaders.

Adjuncts
Post-head dependents which are not complements in a VP are adjuncts Adjuncts are never obligatory Adjuncts modify some aspect of the possible reference of the VP Different types of phrases can act as an adjunct in a VP (XP is an abbreviation for an unspecified type of phrase) Adjuncts can be fronted to pre-Subject

I left very quickly. (AdvP) I left. Very quickly I left. I saw John on Tuesday. (PP) I saw John. On Tuesday I saw John. Mary left the following day. (NP) Mary left. The following day Mary left.

Multiple adjuncts Sue slept very badly in the plane on Tuesday after the meeting

Complements cannot be omitted (except in special cases)

I behave very badly. (COMP:AdvP) *I behave ___. (incomplete - opposite meaning) I put John on the ground. (COMP:PP) *I put John ___. Mary left her bag. (COMP:NP) *Mary left ____. Santa depends on Rudolph. (COMP:PP) *Santa depends ___.

Complements precede adjuncts

John read [the book] carefully/in the lounge *John read carefully/in the lounge [the book].

Exception: 'Heavy' DO NP may follow an adjunct phrase John examined (very) carefully [every single document in the safe].

Summary
Every phrase has a head A phrase may have dependents Dependents may precede or follow the head Dependents with a close semantic and syntactic relationship with the head are complements In some phrases (e.g., VP) complements may be obligatory Dependents which are freely added to a phrase to modify the head are adjuncts

End of slides