Introduction to Grammar

1) Parts of Speech
2) Tenses
3) Subject and Verb Agreement
4) Sentences and its kinds
5) Active Voice and Passive Voice
6) Direct and Indirect Speech
7) Gerund and Infinitive
8) Clauses 1
 Grammar
This term is derived from three different words:
Old French word Grammarie/ Grammaire
Latin word Grammatica
Greek word Grammatikos

Grammar is derived from a new Latin word “Grammat”.

Grammarie / Grammaire, Grammatica and Grammatikos all mean
written letters/characters or a set of standard rules.

Definitions: The system of rules that indicates how our thoughts

can be expressed is called Grammar.
Or: The particular analysis of the rule of a language is called
Grammar.
Or: The systematic study of scientific method which provides us
guidance and information necessary to learn a language is called
2
Grammar.
Some Important Terminologies:
1: Alphabet
A set of letters, symbols or characters that is arranged in a fixed
order and is used for writing a language and representing the basic
sound in speech is called Alphabet.

2: Letter
A character that represents one or more of the sounds in speech is
called Letter.
Or: Any of the symbols in English Alphabet is called Letter.

3: Words
It is the single unit of a language that has a meaning and can be
written and spoken.
Or: A meaningful sound or combination of sounds that is the unit of
a language and is made up of letters is called Word.

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Kinds of Words
There are Two kinds of words namely:
Grammatical Words
They are those words that aren’t self-explanatory or can’t be defined
by one word.
Grammatical words need explanation.
Ex: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective Clause, and Gerund etc.
Dictionary / Absolute / Ordinary Words
They are those words that are self-explanatory or can be defined by
one word.
Ordinary words do not need much explanation.
Ex: Book, Pencil, Chair, and Table etc.
4: Phrase
A group of words that doesn’t have any subject and verb but
expresses a particular idea or meaning and forms a part of
sentence is called Phrase.
Ex: In the class, on the table, behind the mosque etc. 4
5: Clause

A group of words having a subject and a verb that forms a part

of sentence is called Clause.
Ex: Because Ali is sick, he can’t come today.
Clause Clause
6: Sentence
A group of words having a subject and a predicate and which
gives a complete sense or meaning is called sentence.
Sentences written in English begin with a capital letter and
usually end with a full stop or a question mark.
Ex: Ali is from Afghanistan.
Sentence

Definition of Subject
The person or thing we are talking about is called subject.

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Definition of Predicate
A part of sentence which talks about subject is called Predicate.
Ex: Ali is from Afghanistan.
Subject Predicate
Note: predicate = verb + object/complement

Object: A noun or pronoun representing the person or thing that

something is done to is called Object.
.Ex: We built the house. The house is Object in this sentence

Complement: A word or phrase that follows a verb and describes the

subject of the verb or completes the meaning of sentence is called
complement.

Ex:  John is cold' and 'John became chairman', 'cold' and 'chairman'
are Complements.
Every Object is Complement.
Every Complement isn’t Object.

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Parts of Speech
Chapter 1

7
Parts of Speech
Parts of Speech is also called Word Class, Lexical Category, and
Syntactic Category.
Parts: Means segments or section.
Speech: Means talking or conversation.
Parts of Speech is traditional term that refers to the words that form
speech.
Or: Words that are divided into different groups or classes according
to their grammatical function in a sentence is called Parts of Speech.
These are Eight Parts of Speech in English.
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Adjective
4. Adverb
5. Verb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection 8
Classes of Parts of Speech
Parts of Speech has Two classes namely:

1. Open Class Elements

They accept new members.

They are
Noun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb
Ex: Beauty, Beautify, Beautiful, Beautifully

2. Close Class Elements

They don’t accept new member.
Ex: He, But, From, Ouch, Can’t be changed.

They are
Pronoun, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection

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1: Noun
It is derived from a Latin word ‘Nomen’ which means ‘ a name’
or ‘naming word’.
Noun is a word or group of words that gives a title to a person,
place or thing.
Or: Noun is a word that is used to name followings.

Person  Ali, Ahmad, Jamal

Place  Kabul, Afghanistan, Pakistan
Thing  Pen, Pencil, Chair, Car etc.
Animal  Lion, Tiger, Cat, Dog etc.
Action  To go, Going, To study, Studying etc.
Idea  Sadness, Pain, Knowledge, Success etc.
Quality of Mind  Love, Like, Dislike, Hate etc.
Title  Doctor, Nurse, Teacher etc.
Idea: All those things that we can’t touch but we can feel.

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 Roots of Noun:
Cases of Noun
Kinds of Noun
Gender of Noun
Number of Noun

1. Case of Noun
Case of Noun shows where noun is used in a sentence.
There are Six cases of a Noun.
1. Subjective Case
2. Objective Case
3. Subjective Complement
4. Oblique Case
5. Vocative Case
6. Possessive Case

1. Subjective Case: It is also called nominative case.

Noun is used as the subject of the verb. 11
Noun + Verb
Ex: Ali comes daily.
The chair is old.
Are the boys studying?
Ahmad is a student.
Note: In questions, noun is placed after the auxiliary verb.
Ex: Are you a teacher?

2. Objective Case (Direct Object of Verb)

It is also called Accusative Case.
Noun is used as the object of the verb.

Main Verb + Noun

Ex: Ali studies English.
She cooks the dinner.
Ahmad is playing cricket.
She drinks water.
Ali eats mango. 12
3. Subjective Complement
It is also called as the verb of Incomplete Predicate.
Noun is used after To Be Verb to complete the meaning of
sentence.

To Be Verb + Noun
Ex: I am a teacher.
He is a doctor.
Ali is a policeman.
They are students.

4. Oblique Case
It is called object of preposition.
Noun is used as the object of preposition.

Preposition + Noun
Ex: Ali is from Pakistan.
I went to Lahore.
I play with Ali.
Ali comes to center by bus. 13
5. Vocative Case
It is also called Nominative of Address.
It may be of Two kinds:

A) Direct Nominative of Address: First we point out the person.

Then, we give order.

Noun + Imperative Sentence

Ex: Ali, bring me a glass of water.
Ali, listen to me.

B) Indirect Nominative of Address: First we give order and

then we point out the person.
Ex: Bring me a glass of water, Ali.
Turn off the fun, Ahmad.

6. Possessive Case
It is called Genitive Case.
Noun is used with (‘s) or (s’) to show relationship and ownership.
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Usages of ’S (Apostrophe S):

1. With singular regular nouns.

Ex: Ali’s car
Teacher’s file
Father’s name

2. With singular and plural irregular nouns.

Ex: Child’s toy

Children’s toy
Man’s perfume
Men’s perfume
Woman’s clothes
Women’s clothes
3. With nouns having no plural forms.

Ex: Two I’s in India

Seven C’s
Use but ’s instead of for’s 15
Usages of S’ ( S Apostrophe):

1. With regular plural nouns.

Ex: Teachers’ room (correct)

Teacherss’ room (incorrect)
Boys’ hostel
Girls’ college

2. With names of family.

Ex: Afridi’s Hujra
Logans’ family tree
Navas’ building
Ahmadzais’ property
Boss’s Job (formal)
Bos’s Job (informal)

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Kinds of Possessive Case
It has Two kinds.

Joint Possessive
(‘s) or (s’) is used only with the second nouns.

Ex: Ali and Mahmood’s room

Ali and Ahmad’s brother
Ali and Ahmad’s brothers

Separate Possessive
(‘s) or (s’) is used with both Noun
Ex: Ali’s and Mahmood’s room
Ali’s and Ahmad’s brother
Ali’s and Ahmad’s brothers.

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2. Kinds of Noun
There are Nine kinds of noun.
1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
3. Material Noun
4. Concrete Noun
5. Abstract Noun
6. Countable Noun
7. Non-countable Noun
8. Collective Noun
9. Compound Noun

1. Proper Noun
A noun that is the name of a particular person, place, and thing is
called Proper Noun. It is capitalized anywhere in the sentence.
Ex: Person  Ahmad, Ali, Laila,
Place  London, Pakistan etc.
Thing Holy Quran
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2. Common Noun
It is the name given in common to a person, place or thing.
Ex: Person  Teacher, Girls, Boy, Man etc.
Place  City, Village, Country etc.
Thing  Pen, Book, Pencil, Computer etc.

3. Material Noun
It is the name of substance out of which other things are made.
Ex: Plastic, Paper, Wood etc.

4. Concrete Noun
A noun that has a physical existence and can be seen and touched
is called Concrete Noun.
Ex: Pens, Pencils, Desks etc.

5. Abstract Noun
It is the name of something which can’t be seen or touched but can
be felt.
Ex: Honesty, Pain, Sorrow, Happiness, Modesty etc. 19
6. Countable Noun (Unit Noun)
It is the name of something that can be counted and divided into
singular and plural.
Ex: Book, Pencil, Boy, Girl, Man, Tree, Table etc.

7. Non- Countable Noun (Mass Noun)

It is the name of something that can’t be counted and divided into
singular and plural.
Ex: Water, Sugar, Rice, Sand, Bread, Advice, Honey, Milk etc.

8. Collective Noun
It is the name of group or collection of people, things, or animals.
It functions as singular but refers to plural.
Ex: Class, Team, Flock of animal, Dozen of eggs, Staff etc.

9. Compound Noun
Noun + Noun is called Compound Noun.
First noun functions as an adjective and modifies the second noun.
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Formation of Compound Noun

Noun + Noun
Ex: Shopkeeper, Policeman, Housewife, Snowman, Keyboard,
Police Station, Homework etc.

Gerund + Noun
Ex: Frying pan, Swimming pool, Washing machine, Wedding hall,
Dining room etc.

Noun + Gerund
Ex: Window shopping, Hand writing, Bird watching, Body building,
Match fixing etc.

Adjective + Noun
Ex: Black berry, Yellow fever, Whiteboard, Red bull, Black magic,
Black water, Best man etc.
(a tropical viral disease affecting the liver and kidneys, causing fever and jaundice and often fatal. It is transmitted by mosquitoes)

Noun + Preposition + Noun

Ex: Man of the match, Editor-in-chief, Son-in-Law, Mother-in-law etc.
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Kinds of Compound Noun
There are Three kinds of Compound Noun.

Open Compound Noun

Two nouns are written with space.
Ex: College teacher, Bus driver

Closed Compound Noun

Two nouns are written without space.
Ex: Homework, Snowman, Classroom, Keyboard etc.

Hyphenated Compound Noun

It is made of noun + preposition + noun having two Hyphens(-)
Ex: Son-in-Law, Editor –in-Chief, Brother-in-Law, Commander-
in-Chief etc.

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3. Gender of Noun
Gender is derived from a Latin word “Genus” which means
kind or sort.
Gender indicates whether a person or an animal is male or
female or none.

Kinds of Gender
There are Four kinds of Gender:

Masculine Gender
It indicates that a person or an animal is male.
Ex: boy, man, father, lion, dog, manager.

Feminine Gender
It indicates that a person or an animal is female.
Ex: girl, woman, mother, lioness, bitch, manageress etc.

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Neuter Gender
It indicates neither male nor female.
Ex: pen, pencil, chair, table etc.

Common Gender
It indicates that a person is both male and female.
Ex: singer, principal, doctor, children, teacher, officer, engineer etc.

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1. Masculine Feminine Common-gender
boy girl child
man woman person
father mother parent
son daughter child
brother sister sibling
grandfather grandmother grandparent
uncle aunt -
nephew niece -
husband wife spouse, partner
bridegroom bride -
fiancé fiancée -
actor actress actor
author authoress author
chairman chairwoman chairperson/chair
duke duchess -
emperor empress monarch,
gentleman lady person
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4. Number of Noun
Number of noun indicates whether a person, thing or animal is singular or
plural in number.
A singular noun names one person, place, thing, or idea.
One cat, one store, one item
A plural noun names two or more persons, places, things, or ideas.
Two cats, four stores, fifteen items
1. For most singular nouns, add s.

Singular Plural
teacher teachers
street streets
pencil pencils
book books
elephant elephants
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2. For nouns ending with s, x, z, sh, or ch, add es.

Singular Plural
gas gases
wax waxes
waltz waltzes
dish dishes
church churches

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3. For nouns ending with a consonant and y, change the y to
i and add es. For nouns ending with a vowel and y, add s.

Singular Plural
sky skies
army armies
penny pennies
boy boys
alley alleys

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4. For some nouns ending with f or fe, add s. For
others, change the f to v and add s or es. (You will
need to memorize the spellings for such words or
look them up in a dictionary to check.

Singular Plural
belief beliefs
roof roofs
loaf loaves
life lives
knife knives

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 These are a little tricky . . .
5. For nouns that end with o, add s or es. (Again, you
would need to memorize the spellings of such
words or look them up in a dictionary to double-
check.)
—One trick to remember: if it has to do with sound
(“music”), just add s.—Ex: cello. piano, radio

Singular Plural
cello cellos
piano pianos
radio radios
zoo zoos
potato / tomato potatoes / tomatoes

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6. Some nouns have irregular plural forms. You will have
to memorize the spelling for irregular plurals.

Singular Plural
child children
foot feet
tooth teeth
mouse mice
man / woman men / women

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7. A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms.

Singular Plural
sheep sheep
Chinese Chinese
moose moose
grapefruit grapefruit
deer deer
salmon salmon

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8. A few nouns have only plural forms.

Plural
scissors
jeans
savings
dues

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9. A few nouns that end with s look plural but are
considered singular.

Singular
measles
news
economics
dues

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 Compound Nouns
10.For most compound nouns, make the
most important word plural.
• For a compound noun written as one
word, make the last part plural.
• For a compound noun written with
hyphens or as separate words, make
the key word plural.

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 Singular Plural
One word billboard billboards
compound
nouns cupful cupfuls
campground campgrounds
Separate
words maid of honor maids of honor
Hyphenated
attorney-at-law attorneys-at-law
compound step-brother step-brothers
nouns
Great-grandma Great-grandmas

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11. Letters, numbers, symbols, and words used as words are
made plural by adding an apostrophe (‘) and s.

Singular Plural
# #’s
A A’s
25 25’s
and and’s
& &’s
ABC & 123 ABC’s & 123’s

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 Multiple Choice
Which 2 words correctly
complete these sentences?
We bought a pair of _____ and some _____ at the yard
sale.

A. ski . . . dishes

B. skis . . . dishs

C. skies . . . dish

D. skis . . . dishes

38
 CORRECT!
We bought a pair of _skis_ and
some _dishes_ at the yard sale.

39
 Multiple Choice

One of her _______ is studying _______ in the wild.

A. hobbys . . . monkeyes

B. hobbyes . . . monkies

C. hobbies . . . monkeys

D. hobbys. . . monkees

40
 CORRECT!
One of her _hobbies_ is
studying _monkeys_ in the
wild.

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 Multiple Choice

A team of ______ pulled a wagon with three _______

inside.

A. ox . . . woman

B. oxen . . . women

C. oxes . . . women

D. oxens . . . womans

42
 CORRECT!
A team of _oxen_ pulled a
wagon with three _women_
inside.

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 Multiple Choice

Near the campsite, they saw two _______ and several

________.

A. deer . . . moose

B. deers . . . moose

C. deers . . . mooses

D. deer . . . meese

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 CORRECT!
Near the campsite, they saw
two _deer_ and several
_moose_.

45
2. Pronoun
It is derived from a Latin word “Pronomen” which means for a noun.
Def: Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun to avoid its
unnecessary repetition in a sentence.
Ex: Ali is my best friend. He is the only son of a father.
Notes: Pronoun can be also used as Antecedents.
Ex: He is Ali.
They are Mahmood and Ali.
She is Laila.
He is Ahmad.
He is my best friend.
Kinds of Pronoun
There are Seven kinds of pronoun:
1. Subject Pronoun
2. Object Pronoun
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
4. Possessive Pronoun
5. Reflexive Pronoun
6. Emphatic / Intensive Pronoun
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7. Interrogative Pronoun
1. Subject Pronoun
A pronoun that is used as subject and refers to three persons is
called Subject Pronoun.
Subject pronouns are (I, we, you, he, she, it, they).
1st Person: The person who is speaking.
1st Singular Person: I
1st Plural Person: We
2nd Person: The person who is spoken to or the person to whom
first person speaks.
2nd Singular Person: You
2nd Plural Person: You
3rd Person: The person who is spoken off or a person about whom
we speak.
3rd Singular Person: He, She, It
3rd Plural Person: They

(Subject pronoun + verb + R.S.)

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2. Object Pronoun
A pronoun that is used as object and most often receives the action
is called Object Pronoun.
Object Pronouns are (me, you, him, them, us, her, it)

Main Verb / Preposition + Object Pronoun

Ex: Please call him.

I listen to them.
Ali took her to hospital.
Don’t fight with me.
I will beat you.

48
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to point out a near or far person (s),
place (s) thing (s) is called Demonstrative Pronoun.

This: for near singular person, place or thing

That: for far singular person, place or thing
These: for near plural persons, places or things
Those: for far plural persons, places or things

Ex: This is my car.

I will buy those.
I listen to this.
Those are my friends.
This goes too fast.

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4. Possessive Pronoun
A pronoun is used to show ownership and relationship is called
Possessive Pronoun. To use these pronouns, the noun must
be mentioned before.

Mine, Ours, Yours, His, Hers, Its, Theirs

Ex: That is mine.

I like yours.
Ali’s your teacher?
Where’s ours?
Ex: I have two cars. its color is red. its is blue.
Ali’s bike is new.
Hers is newer.
Note: After Possessive Pronoun, we cannot use noun.

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5. Reflexive Pronoun
A pronoun in which the subject and the object is the same
person is called Reflexive Pronoun.
1. Myself
2. Ourselves
3. Yourself/ Yourselves
4. Herself
5. Himself
6. Itself
7. Themselves
Ex: I introduce myself to students.
A computer can’t run itself.
She killed herself.

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6. Intensive / Emphatic Pronoun
A Reflexive Pronoun that is used after the subject for sake of
emphasis is called Emphatic Pronoun.
1. Myself
2. Herself
3. Ourselves
4. Himself
5. Yourself / Yourselves
6. Itself
7. Themselves

Subject + Reflexive Pronoun = Emphatic Pronoun

Ex: I myself caught the tiger.
You yourself choose this suit.
They themselves learn the new lesson.

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7. Interrogative Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to ask questions is called Interrogative
Pronoun.
Who
Whom
Which + verb
What
Whose

Ex: Who is your father?

Whom do you want to meet?
Which is the most expensive?
Whose is that?
What did you do?
To whom is she talking?

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3. Adjective
It is derived from a Latin word “Adjectivus” which means to
add.
Def: Adjective is a word that explains, modifies or gives further
information about a noun or pronoun in a sentence.

Ex: Ali is smart boy.

She is kind.
He is intelligent.
Ali is kind.
She is a good doctor.

Root of Adjective
•Cases of Adjective
•Kinds of Adjective
•Degrees of Adjective

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1. Cases of Adjective:
It shows where adjective is used in a sentence.
There are Two cases of an adjective.

 Attributive case
 Predicative case

1. Attributive Case
Adjective is placed before a noun.

Adjective + Noun
Ex: brave man, nice pen, sunny weather, smart boy, speedy
cars, cold water, large glass, good doctor, ugly face etc.

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2. Predictive Case
Adjective is used after linking verb.
is / am / are
seem
look + adjective
taste
sound
feel
etc.

Ex: She is beautiful.

Ali seems sad.
She looks nice.
I feel tired.
She looks hungry.
They are smart.
We are happy.
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Adjective is a word that shows the followings:
Opinion: Ali is a silly boy.
Size: She is a tall girl.
Color: I will buy a black car.
Age: She is a young lady.
Time: We had an early start.
Material: They live in a wooden house.
Origin: She is from America.
Distance: We went to for a long walk.
Temperature: The weather is hot.
Purpose: We have to buy a frying pan.
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Kinds of Adjective:
There are Seven kinds of adjective.
1. Qualitative Adjective
2. Demonstrative Adjective
3. Interrogative Adjective
4. Possessive Adjective
5. Numeral Adjective
6. Quantitative Adjective
7. Proper Adjective

1. Qualitative Adjective
An adjective that shows the quality of a person, place or thing is
called Qualitative Adjective.
Ex: Ali is a kind boy.
Peshawar is hot.
She is beautiful.
Kabul is a beautiful city.
I am a fast driver.
He is a funny boy 58
2. Demonstrative Adjective
An adjective that points out a near or far person (s), place (s)
or thing (s) is called Demonstrative Adjective.
This
That
These + Noun
Those

Ex: This car is expensive.

These classrooms are so small.
Those chairs are new.
That book is boring.

59
3. Interrogative Adjective
An adjective that is used to ask questions is called Interrogative
Adjective.
Whose
What + Noun
Which
Ex: Whose pen is this?
What colors do you like?
Which class do you read in?
4. Possessive Adjective
An adjective that is used to show ownership or relationship is called
Possessive Adjective.
My
Our
Your
His + Noun
Her
Its
Their 60
Ex: It is my marker.
It is her marker.
Ali is his brother.
I like its color.
I like our class.
My name is Ahmad.
5. Numeral Adjective
An adjective that is used to show “How Many” person or thing
we mean is called Numerical Adjective.
Kinds of Numeral Adjective
Definite Numeral Adjective
Denotes a specific number.

Cardinal Numeral Adjective

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine etc.
Ex: I have two markers.
I have three brothers. 61
Ordinal Numeral Adjective
First, second, third, fourth etc.
Ex: Ali got first position.
Ahmad got second prize.

Indefinite Numeral Adjective

Doesn’t show any exact number and most often it is followed
by plural noun.
Some
Any
Many
Few
A few + Plural Count Noun
A lot of
Lots of
Several
More
62
Ex: I have a few markers.
I have few markers.
We have lots of students in KELC.
We have a lot of students in KELC.
We have some questions.
Do you have any brothers?

63
6. Quantitative Adjective
An adjective that is used to show quantity or “How Much” of
something is meant is called Quantitative Adjective.
Some
Any
Lots of
A lot of
Much + Non – count noun
Little
A little
More
Ex: Do you have any coffee?
You have some experience.
We have a lot of water.
She eats lots of money.
She spends a lot of money.
I have much knowledge.
She has little sugar.
You have more information. 64
7. Proper Adjective:
An adjective that is derived from a proper noun to show
nationality or origin is called Proper Adjective.
Ex: Ali is American.
She is a Pakistani lady.
We are Afghan.
She is an Indian singer.
I have a Swiss citizenship.
2. Degrees of Adjective
There are Three Degrees of an adjective:
1. Simple Degree
There is no comparison only quality of a person, place or thing
is discussed.
Ex: She is beautiful.
Peshawar is hot.
My car is new. 65
2. Comparative Degree
We compare one person, place and thing with another person,
place or thing.
Ex: Ali is smarter than Ahmad.
Peshawar is hotter than Islamabad.
My car is older than your bike.

3. Superlative Degree
We compare one person, place, and thing with the group of
persons, places and things.
Ex: Ali is the best boy in my class.
Peshawar is the most modern city in Pakistan.
My car is the newest among all my friends.

66
1. Gradable Adjective
Can have Comparative and superlative forms because it has a
degree or grade.
Ex: Ali is intelligent.
Ali is more intelligent than Ahmad.
Ali is the most intelligent boy in the class.

Non-Gradable Adjective
Can’t have Comparative and superlative form because it
doesn’t have a degree or grade.
Ex: You have done an excellent job.
This work is impossible.
Your homework is complete.
Ali is dead.
She has a unique personality.
My work is finished.
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Rules for Forming Comparative & Superlative Adjectives
Comparative Adjective Superlative Adjective

than the
r st
er est
ier iest
less least
more most

68
Syllable
A word or a part of a word containing a vowel sound is called
syllable.
Ex: big, nice etc
Adjectives of One Syllable:
1. Adjectives ending in “e”, take “r” to form comparative
and “st” to form superlative
Comparative ‘r’ Superlative ‘st’
nice nicest
white whitest
wise wisest
brave bravest
fine finest
wide widest
quite quietest
safe safest 69
2. Adjectives ending in “y”, change “y” to “i” and add “er”
for comparative and “est” for superlative

Simple Comparative Superlative

healthy healthier healthiest

happy happier happiest
pretty prettier prettiest
silly sillier silliest
friendly friendlier friendliest
salty saltier saltiest
ugly uglier ugliest
noisy nosier noisiest
crazy crazier craziest

70
3. Most one syllable adjectives take “er” to form the
comparative and “est” to form the superlative

Simple Comparative Superlative

tall taller tallest
New newer newest
strong stronger strongest
long longer longest
great greater greatest
narrow narrower narrowest
rich richer richest
dark darker darkest
sharp sharper sharpest
short shorter shortest

71
4. CVC formula requires double last consonant and “er”
for comparative and “est” for superlative

Simple Comparative Superlative

fat fatter fattest

slim slimmer slimmest
big bigger biggest
flat flatter flattest
thin thinner thinnest
sad sadder saddest
wet wetter wettest
hot hotter hottest

72
5. Some Adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative
forms

Simple Comparative Superlative

good better best

bad worse worst
far farther/ further farthest
old older oldest
little less least
much/many more most

73
6. Adjectives of more than one syllable take the following

Less Least
+ Adjective + Adjective
More Most

Ex: This pen is less/more expensive than your pen.

This pen is the least/most expensive in the market.
Exception:
Senior: Ali is senior to Ahmad.
Ali is the senior most teacher at KELC.
Junior: You are junior to your brother.
She is the junior most in her family.
Superior: Nokia Mobiles are superior to China Mobiles.
Inferior: China Mobiles are the inferior most products in
Saddar.
74
4. Adverb
It is derived from a Latin word “Adverbium” which means to
add something to the meaning of a verb.

Def: Adverb is a word, phrase or a clause which modifies or

adds something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective another
adverb, clause and a sentence.

Or: A word that answers the following questions is called

Adverb.
• When
• Where
• How / How will
• Why
• To what degree or extent
• How often
• Under what conditions
75
 Adverbs require the main verb.
 Adjective requires the linking verb.

• Adverbs can appear in three shapes.

As a word
As a phrase
As a clause

1. As a word
Ex: Our teacher writes nicely.
She dances beautifully.
You come late.
She walks fast.
He teaches well.
He eats quickly.
He works hard.

76
2. As phrase
Ex: We are in the class.
Our class begins at 6:00 pm.
Accidents occur on main Road.
3. As a clause
Ex: If you struggle, you can succeed.
As soon as the bell rings, we will leave.
Because she didn’t’ study, she failed the exam.

Adverbs modify five things:

1. A Verb
Ex: He teaches well.
She drives recklessly.
He plays beautiful shots.
He plays beautifully.
He plays shots beautifully. 77
2. An Adjective
Ex: She is beautiful.
She is very beautiful.
The weather is hot.
The weather is too hot.
She is a beautiful girl.
She is a very beautiful girl.
3. Another Adverb
Ex: She drives fast.
She drives too fast.
She comes always late.
She always comes late.
She drives very recklessly
4. Clause
It is a part of sentence.
Ex: Perhaps, he will come if he gets an early flight.
Maybe we will win, but our fielding department is weak.
78
5. Sentence
Ex: Fortunately, we won the match.
Luckily, he escaped from his enemies.
He escaped from his enemies, luckily.
Note: Adjective is not used with main verb.
Ex: He plays beautiful. (incorrect)
Adverb is not used with linking verb.
Ex: He is beautifully. (Incorrect)
Kinds of Adverb
There are Seven kinds of Adverb:
1. Interrogative Adverb
2. Adverb of Place
3. Adverb of Time
4. Adverb of Manner
5. Adverb of Frequency
6. Adverb of degree
7. Conjunctive Adverb
79
1. Interrogative Adverb
An adverb that is used to ask question is called Interrogative
Adverb.

Where
When
Why + Auxiliary + Verb + Subject + Main Verb + ROTS
How

Ex: When does your class end?

Why didn’t you come to the party?
How wide is your class?

80
2. Adverb of Place
An adverb that shows the place of an action and answers the
question word “where” is called adverb of place.
Ex: We are in the class.
The accidents occur on the road.
She goes to her office.
You must go there.
3. Adverb of Time
An adverb that shows the time of an action or situation and
answers the question word ‘when’ is called Adverb of Time.
Ex: She is sleeping now.
Our class ends at 06:00.
She died last year.
We will come tomorrow.
I teach adverb today.
Before she comes, we will arrange the chairs.
As soon as the bell rings, we will leave the class. 81
There are Two Kinds of Adverb of Time

1. Definite Adverbs of Time: shows exact time in the present,

past and future.
Ex: Today, Tomorrow, Last night, Five years ago etc.

1. Indefinite Adverbs of Time: doesn’t show exact time in the

present, past and future.
Ex: Yet, Recently, Lately, Already, Ever, Just, Still, Anymore
etc.

4. Adverb of Manner
An adverb that ends in (ly, ally, ily) and shows how someone
does something is called Adverb of Manner.
These adverbs answer the question word ‘how’ or ‘how well’?

82
Adverbs of manner are formed by adding (ly, ally, ily) to adjectives.
“LY Adverbs”
Adjective Adverb
beautiful beautifully
smart smartly
bad badly
careful carefully
quick quickly
slow slowly
loud loudly
correct correctly
swift swiftly
safe safely
exact exactly
brave bravely
Ex: She dances beautiful. (incorrect)
She dances beautifully.
He is a careful driver.
He drives carefully.
Your answers are correct.
You answered all the questions correctly. 83
“Ally and “ily” adverbs

Ending with (ic) add (ally)

heroic heroically
automatic automatically
basic basically
romantic romantically
scientific scientifically
dramatic dramatically
systematic systematically
economic economically
strategic strategically
rustic rustically
comic comically

84
 Ending with (y) change (y) to (i) and add (ly)
happy happily
easy easily
busy busily
lazy lazily
funny funnily
crazy crazily
sleepy sleeping
drowsy drowsily
angry angrily
hungry hungrily
Ex: She is happy.
She lives happily.
He is busy.
He is working busily.
The tiger is hungry.
He is roaming hungrily. 85
 Four words are use as adverb without (ly) (fast, late,
hard, well).
Ex: He runs fast.
He comes late.
He works hard.
He drives well.

 There are some (ly) adjectives. (friendly, silly, lonely,

lovely, ugly, lively etc.)
Ex: He is friendly.
You are silly.
You are silly boy.
He is lonely.
She is a lonely lady.
She is ugly.
He was a lively person.
She talks friendly. (incorrect)
86
 We use these adjectives as an adverb of manner by the
following structures.

In + a /an + (friendly, silly, lonely etc) + way / manner

Ex: She is ugly.

She has dressed in an ugly way.
He talks in a friendly manner/way.
She is lovely.
She walks in lovely way.
Ali is a lively boy.
Ali lives with his parents in a lively manner.
Ahmad is silly.
Ahmad acts in a silly way.

87
5. Adverb of Frequency
An adverb that answers the question word ‘How Often’ and
shows the repetition of events is called Adverb of Frequency.

Kinds of Adverb of Frequency

There are two kinds of Adverb of Frequency

Definite adverb of frequency

Shows exact repletion of events.
Once, twice, thrice, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly

Indefinite Adverb of Frequency

Doesn’t show exact repetition of events
always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, hardly, ever, seldom,
never etc.
Ex: She sometimes comes late.
He always comes on time.
I often eat fish.
88
6. Adverb of Degree
An adverb that is used to show to what degree or extent
something exists is called Adverb of Degree. (too, enough,
pretty, so, fairly, rather, very, quiet etc.).

Ex: The weather is too hot.

She is so beautiful.
He teaches very well.
She is beautiful enough.
He drives the car fairly fast.
He has quite few friendly.
She dances pretty well.
The wind is rather chilly.

89
7. Conjunctive Adverb (connective adverb, logical connector,
discourse marker, transition word, function word, parenthetical
expression, interrupter)

Def: A word or an expression that shows how two ideas are

connected and how we are taken from one idea to another
idea is called Conjunctive Adverb.
It combines sentences in paragraph it has three positions in
the second sentence.

First sentence + full stop /semi colon + transition, + subject + verb + Complement

First sentence + full stop /semi colon + subject + ,transition, + verb + Complement

First sentence + full stop /semi colon + subject + verb + Complement + ,transition

90
For additional information we use:
Furthermore
Moreover
Besides
In addition
For showing contrast we use:
However
On the other hand
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
In the contrary
For telling reality we use:
In fact
In deed
In reality
As a matter of fact
91
To give an example of something we use:
For instance
For example

For cause and effect we use:

Thus
Consequently
Therefore
As a result
Hence

To give conclusion we use:

Finally
Eventually
Consequently
As a result

92
Ex: He didn’t study hard; therefore, he failed the test.
He didn’t study hard. He, therefore, failed the test.
It is raining; however, they are playing outside.
It is raining; they, however, are playing outside.
Ali studies English and Compute classes.
He, moreover, looks after his hop.
Ali studies English and Computer classes.
Moreover, he looks after his shop.
Ali studies English and Computer classes.
He looks after his shop, moreover.

93
5. Verb
It is derived from a Latin word “Verbum” which means an
action / state.
Def: Verb is a word that shows an action or state.

State: It shows the following:

1. Existence / state of being.
2. Ownership.
3. Senses
4. Mental activity
5. Emotions / feelings
Or: A word that shows the followings is called verb.

1. Verb shows what a person or thing does.

Ex: Ali plays cricket.
My Computer works fast.

94
2. Verb shows what is done to a person or thing.
Ex: Ali was beaten by his friends.
My car is fixed by an experienced mechanic.

3. Verb shows what a person or thing has (possession).

Ex: They have a lot of money.
My computer has virus.

4. Verb shows what a person or thing is (state).

Ex: We are students.
My computer is old.

Categories of Verb

1. Verbs According to Form

2. Verbs According to Kind

95
1. Verbs According to Form:
There are five kinds of verbs according to form.
Unconjugated form  go
Inflected form goes
Derivational form  going
Conjugated form  went
Super Conjugated form  gone

1. Unconjugated form: It is used with (they, we, you, I) and

after modal auxiliary verbs.
2. Inflected form: It is used with (he, she, it) in present tense.
3. Derivational form: it is used in forming progressive tenses.
4. Conjugated form: It is used to form past tense.
Ex: I have finished special grammar.
5. Super Conjugated form: It is used in perfect tenses and
passive voice. 96
2. Verbs According to Kind
There are Two kinds of verbs according to kind.
Main, Lexical, Nation or Complete Verb.
Auxiliary verb

1. Main, lexical verb: A verb that is used to show action or

state is called Main Verb.
Ex: She eats a mango.
She is a kind girl.
A Main Verb can have the following kinds.

1. Transitive Verb
2. Intransitive Verb
3. Linking Verb
4. Stative Verb

97
1. Transitive verb: A verb that is followed by an object is
called Transitive Verb.
Or a verb is transitive verb when the action possess over from
the subject to the object.

Subject + main verb + affected object

Ex: I met Ali.
I slapped her.
Ali wrote a letter.

Kinds of Transitive Verb

Mono Transitive Verb
Di Transitive Verb

1. Mono transitive verb: Mono means one. A verb which is

followed by one direct object (affected object).
Ex: Ali drives a car.
I beat him.
98
2. Di-Transitive Verb
Di means two.
It is followed by two objects; one is direct object and the other
is indirect object.

Subject + verb + noun + for/to + noun (formal)

Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object (informal)
Ex: I sent a gift to Ali.
I sent Ali a gift.

2. Intransitive Verb
A verb that can’t be followed by any object but, can be followed
by complement is called Intransitive Verb.

99
Main verb + Complement (modifier, PATAP)
PATAP stands for:
P = Place
A = Adverb
T = Time
A = Adjective
P = Preposition
Ex: I go to school.
She dances beautifully.
We will come at 6:30 pm.
She seems sad.
I agree with you.

3. Linking Verb: It is also called Copular, Copulative or

Copulas Verb.
It is a verb that is followed by an adjective and links the
complement with the subject. 100
Subject + linking verb + adjective
(be, seem, feel, look, taste, sound)
Ex: Ali is smart.
Ali seems sad.
I feel tired.
The rose smells nice.
The soup taste delicious.
Ahmad looks angry.

4. Stative Verb
It is also called non-progressive verb.
It isn’t used in progressive tenses
It shows only existing conditions or states.
It is most often used in simple tenses.
It is unlike dynamic verb which shows action.

101
Stative Verb has five categories.
Existence / state of being
Possession /ownership
Senses
Mental activity
Emotion / altitude

Ex: She is a teacher.

They are farmers..
We have lots of problems.
She owns a big business.
I hear loud noises.
She watched the mirror.
I see all the boys in the class.
We know each other well.
I forget your name.
She loves her country.
I hate liars. 102
2. Auxiliary Verbs
They are called Helping Verbs.
They help some other verbs to form negation, question and
different tenses.

Kinds of Auxiliary Verb

There are Two kinds of auxiliary verb.

• Primary / Principle Verbs

• Modal Auxiliary Verbs

1. Primary Auxiliary Verbs

They are used to form negation, question and different tenses
and without their presence the sentence, would be
grammatically wrong.

103
Kinds of Primary Auxiliary Verbs
There are three kinds of primary auxiliary verbs.
To be To do To have
Be Do Has
Is, Am, Are Does Have
Was / Were Did Had
Been / being etc.
Ex: She is going to school. (correct)
She going to school (incorrect)
She goes to school. (correct)
Goes he to School. (incorrect)
Does she go to school? (correct)
We want not to school (incorrect)
We didn’t go to school (correct)
I eaten lunch. (incorrect)
I have eaten lunch (correct)
Before she came, we gone out. (incorrect)
Before she came, we had gone out. (correct) 104
2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs
They are called Defective Verbs.
They are used to show different feelings or attitude of a
speaker.

Can
Could
May
Might
Will + Verb 1
Would
Shall
Should
Must
Ought to

105
6. Conjunction
It is derived from a Latin word “Conjunct” which means to
combine.

Def: A word or group of words that combines words, phrases

and clauses or sentences is called Conjunction.

Kinds of Conjunctions
There are Three kinds of conjunctions
Coordinate Conjunction
Correlative / Paired Conjunctions
Subordinate Conjunction

106
1. Co-ordinate Conjunction
It is also called coordinative or coordinating conjunction
Conjunctions that combine words, phrases and sentences that are
equal in grammar and meaning are called Coordinate Conjunction.
Note: They are also called FANBOYS.

For
So And

FANBOYS

Yet Nor

Or But
107
Kinds of Coordinate Conjunction
There are Four kinds of coordinative conjunction
For  Illative Conjunction
And/so  Cumulative Conjunction
Nor/or  Alternative Conjunction
But/yet  Disjunction Conjunction
Clause + for / yet / so + Clause
Words, phrase, clauses + and / nor / or / but + words,
phrases clauses
Ex: He didn’t come to class, for he was too sick.
We didn’t study hard, yet we passed the test.
The weather is hot, so we plan to go swimming.
Math is boring and difficult.
Ali wasn’t in his bedroom nor in playground.
She enjoys swimming or dancing.
Ali is too busy, but he still comes to class.
108
2. Correlative / Paired Conjunctions
They are also called Paired Conjunctions.
They are used to combine word, phrases, sentences that are equal in
grammar and meaning.
Both  and
Neither  nor
Either  or
Not only  but also

Ex: Both Ali and Mahmood are good boys.

Neither the boys nor girls are allowed.
Math is not only difficult but also boring.
He can either play cricket or stay at home.
109
3. Subordinate Conjunction
A conjunction that is used to combine an incomplete clause
with a complete clause is called Subordinate Conjunction.

1. Subordinate conjunction + incomplete clause +

complete clause
2. Complete clause + subordinate conjunction + in
Complete clause
Kinds of Subordinate Conjunction

1. Subordinate Conjunction of Time

It shows time of an action or event.
(Before, After, While, As, When, While, Since, Till, Until, Once)

2. Subordinate Conjunction of Cause and Effect

It shows cause and effect relationship.
(Because, Since, As, Now That, Since, In asmuchas) 110
Subordinate Conjunction of Purpose
It shows the purpose of doing an action
(So that, In order that)

Subordinate Conjunction of Contrast

It shows a contrast it can be direct, indirect or unexpected
result.
(Although, Even Though, Though, While, Whereas)

Subordinate Conjunction of Condition

It shows show a condition.
(If, Unless, Whether or not, Even If, Only If, Providing that,
Provided that, In case that)

7. Preposition
It is derived from a Latin word “Preaposition” which means
placing before.
111
Def: A word or group of words that is placed before noun or
pronoun to show its relationship to some other words in
sentence is called preposition.
Ex: I talk to Ali.
Laila fights him. (incorrect)
Laila fights with him.

A Preposition is most often placed before its object. (Object of

preposition)
Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, Infinitive, Noun
Clause
Ex: I talk to Ali.
She is playing with her.
We are interesting in learning.
We have no choice but to study.
I am fired of what you are saying.

112
Kinds of Preposition
There are Three kinds of prepositions.
Simple Preposition
Double Preposition
Phrase Preposition
1. Simple Preposition
Preposition that is one word and can be either Mono or Di
syllable is called Simple Preposition.
(to, about, from, in, on, at, with, for, under, above, among,
between, over, behind, despite)
2. Double Preposition
They are also called two word prepositions.
Prepositions that are used in pairs are called Double
Prepositions.
(due to, because of, owing to, such as, from…to, across from,
next to, near to, instead of, along with, inspite of, rather than)
113
3. Phrase Preposition
A group of words that is used as preposition is called Phrase
Preposition.
(on behalf of, in the name of, by the help of, at the end of, by the
grace of, in the middle of, in the presence of, on the surface of, at
the corner of, in the memory of, in the light of, in search of)

8. Interjection
It means exclamation.
It is a word or phrase that is used to show emotions or sudden
feelings of mind. (happiness, sadness, surprise etc.)
Ex: Wow, it is so beautiful.
Hurrah, we won the match.
Ouch, you hurt my finger.
Alas, she died.
Mmmm, it tastes delicious
Shshshsh, she is sleeping.
Oh! I forget the keys.
Oh my gosh 114
 Tenses
Chapter 2
115
Tenses Chapter 2
Tense
It can have the following Three functions.
As a Noun.
As a Verb.
As an Adjective
As a Noun
Tense means time or any of the forms of a verb expressing
present, past and future.
Ex: We have three main tenses.
As a Verb
Tense means
 to stretch or make firm and tight.
 to disturb or to make nervous.
Ex: Bodybuilding can tense your muscles. 116
As an Adjective
Tense means disturbed or nervous.
Ex: She looks so tense today.
Tense in Grammar
Tense is derived from three different words.
Latin word “Tempus”
Old French word “Tens”
Greek word “Tensus”
Tempus, Tens or Tensus means time or era.
Def: Tense is a grammatical word that shows the relationship
between time, condition and other forms of verb.
Or: A facet of a verb which shows the followings is called Tense.
It shows whether the action / situation happens in the present, past
or future.
It shows whether the action / situation is finished or unfinished.
It shows whether the action / situation is a single or repeated action.
Or: A form of a verb which indicates present, past and future is
called Tense. 117
Kinds of Tense
There are three tenses and each one has four categories.

1. Present Tense
It shows that the action or state expressed by the verb takes
place in the present.
Ex: We study English.
We are at KELC.

2. Past Tense
It shows that the action or state expressed by the verb took
place in the past.
Ex: We studied English.
We were at KELC.

118
3. Future Tense
It shows that the action or state expressed by the verb will take
place in the future.
Ex: We will study English.
We will be at KELC.

Categories of the three tenses

Present Tense Past Tense

Simple Present Tense Simple Past Tense
Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Future Tense
Simple Future Tense
Future Continuous Tense
Future Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Continuous Tense 119
Stage of Tenses

There are three stages for all tenses.

Syntax Stage: (structure)

In this stage, we study how tenses are formed.

Explanation: (usages)
In this stage, we study the usages of tenses.

Implementation Stage: (examples)

In this stage, we study how tenses are used.

120
Present Tense and its categories
1. Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite Tense:

Positive: subject + verb (s, es, ies) + Complement  Action

subject + is / am /are + Complement  state
Negative: subject + does / do + not + verb + Complement
subject + is / am / are + not + Complement.
Positive Interrogative: does / do + subject + verb + Complement.
is /am /are + subject + Complement.
Negative Interrogative: doesn’t / don’t + subject + verb + Complement.

American isn’t / aren’t + subject + Complement.

does / do + subject+ not + verb + Complement.

British is / am / are + subject + not + Complement.

Ex: She has a book.

She doesn’t have a book.
Does she have a book?
Doesn’t she have a book?
Does she not have a book?
121
Usages:

Simple Present Tense is used for the following purposes.

1. It is used to show an action or situation which points back
present, past and future.
Ex: Ali comes to KELC.
Ali is our teacher.

Or: It is used to show an action that happens regularly or a

habit that a particular person has.
Ex: My father goes to work at 7:00 am.
Mahmood tells lie a lot.
She chews gum in the class.
Note: This kind of present tense is called Iterative Present
Tense.

122
2. It is used to show a universal or general fact / truth.
Universal fact isn’t changeable in nature.
General fact is changeable in nature.

Ex: Allah (S.W.T) is one.

The earth revolves around the sun.
The sun rises in the east.
We study at KELC.
Zardari is the president of Pakistan.
She is young and beautiful.

Note: This kind of present tense is called Neutral Present

Tense.

123
2. Present Continuous / Progressive Tense

positive: subject + is /are /am + verb-ing + Comp

negative: subject + is / am /are + not + verb-ing + Comp
positive interrogative: is / am / are + subject + verb-ing + Comp
negative interrogative:
isn’t / aren’t / + subject + verb-ing+ Comp (AmE)
is / am / are + subject + not + verb-ing + Comp. (BrE)

Ex: I am teaching English.

Am I teaching English?
Aren’t I teaching English?
Amn’t I teaching English? (incorrect)
Am not I teaching English? (incorrect)
Am I not teaching English?

124
Usages:
Present Continuous Tense is use for the following
purposes.
It is used to show an action that is happening at the moment of
speaking or right at the time of specking.
Ex: I am teaching English.
The students are listening and writing notes.

It is used to show an action that isn’t actually happening at the

moment of speaking, but it is happening around the time of
speaking.
Ex: I am studying in Peshawar University.
My father is working in a bank.
I am writing a book.

125
3. Simple Present Perfect Tense
It means past in relation to present.
Positive: subject + has / have + verb 3 + Complement
Negative: subject + has / have + not + verb 3 + Complement
Positive Interrogative: has / have + subject + verb 3 + Complement.
Negative Interrogative:
hasn’t / haven’t + subject + verb 3 + Complement AmE
has / have + subject + not + verb 3 + Complement BrE
Usages:
Present Perfect Simple is used for the following purposes.
1. It is used to show an action or situation which happened or never
happened during a period of time that continuous from past to
present. Or it shows an action or situation which started and finished
at unparticular time in the past. Time is neither clear nor important.
Ex: She has finished her college.
I have eaten Chinese food.
I have never eaten Chinese food.
2. It is used to talk about those events which started and finished but
theirs periods aren’t finished yet. Or: it shows an action of 126
incomplete period of time.
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Positive: Subject + has / have + been + verb-ing + Comp

Negative: Subject + has / have + not + been + verb-ing + Comp
Positive Interrogative:Has / have + subject + been + verb-ing +Comp
Negative interrogative:
Hasn’t / haven’t + subject + been + verb-ing + Complement (AmE)
Has / have + subject + not + been + verb-ing + Complement (BrE)

Usages:
Present perfect continuous tense is used for the following
purposes.
1. It is used to show an action or situation which started at
sometimes in the past, continuous up to the time of speaking and
may or may not go to the future.
Note: Since / for are used in this case.

127
Present perfect tense and present perfect continuous both
tenses are the same but different.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense shows the followings:

• Short background action.

• Un-interrupted action
• Un-achieved action result
• Emphasis on continuation

Ex: She has taught at KELC for 25 years. (better)

She has been teaching at KELC for 25 years (right)
He has worked in this bank since April 2012. (right)
He has been working in this bank since April 2012
(better)

128
It is used to give explanations for those actions which were in
progress, but have already finished or just stopped.

Note: Since / For aren’t used.

Ex: Ali’s eyes are red and puffy. He has been crying)
She is breathless. She has been running.
The child is dirty from head to feet. He has been playing in
mud.
Her hair is still wet. She has been swimming.

129
Past Tense and its categories

1. Simple Past Tense or Pritrit Past tense

Positive: subject + verb 2 + Complement

Negative: subject + did + not + verb 1 + Comp
Positive Interrogative: did + subject + verb 1 + Comp
Negative Interrogative:
didn’t + subject + verb 1 + Complement (AmE)
did + subject + not + verb 1 + Complement. (BrE)
Ex: They had a test.
They did not have a test.
Did they have a test?
Didn’t they have a test?
Did they not have a test?
Did not they have a test? (incorrect)

130
Usages:

Simple Pas Tense is used for the following purposes.

It is used to show an action or situation that began and ended
at a particular time in the past.

Note: Adverbs of past time are used.

Ex: I visited Peshawar last year.
She was in Kabul a month ago.

It is used to indicate a present or future unreal desire with ‘if’

and ‘wish’.
Ex: If the weather weren’t so hot, we could play outside.
I wish that you passed the test.
I wish I weren’t busy on Sunday.

131
2. Past Continuous / Progressive Tense

Positive: subject + was / were + verb-ing + Complement.

Negative: subject + was /were + not + verb-ing + Comp
Positive Interrogative: was /were + subject + verb-ing + Comp

Negative Interrogative:
wasn’t / weren’t + subject + verb-ing + Comp
was / were + subject + not + verb-ing + Comp

132
Usages:

1. Past continuous tense is used for the following purposes.

It is used to show an action that was in progress at a particular
time in the past.
The stated time is the continuation point not the starting point.
Ex: We were playing cricket yesterday at 3:00 pm.
She was washing the dishes last night at 10:00 pm.
They were cutting the crops last year in June.
2. It is used to indicate an action which was in progress, but
sometimes interrupted by another action.
While + Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
When + Simple Past Tense + Past Continuous Tense

Ex: While I was teaching, someone knocked the door.

When some one knocked the door, I was teaching.
133
3. Past Perfect Tense or Plu Perfect Tense
It means past in relation to past.
Positive: subject + had + verb 3 + Complement
Negative: subject + had + not + verb 3 + Comp
Positive Interrogative: had + subject + verb 3 + Comp
Negative Interrogative:
hadn’t + subject + verb 3 + Complement. (AmE)
had + subject + not + verb 3 + Complement. (BrE)
Usages:
Past Perfect Tense is used for the following purposes.
It is used to show an action or situation which happened or didn’t
happen before another action or time in the past. Or Two actions
happened in the past, but one action happened earlier and the
other action happened later.

 Earlier / first action: Past Perfect Tense (after, when)

 Later / second action: Simple Past Tense (before, when, by the
time) 134
Structures:

After + Past Perfect Tense + Simple Past Tense

After + Simple Past Tense + Simple Past Tense
Before + Simple Past Tense + Past Perfect Tense.
Before + Simple Past Tense + Simple Past Tense
When + Past Perfect Tense + Simple Past Tense
When + Simple Past Tense + Past Perfect Tense
When + Simple Past Tense + Simple Past Tense
By the time + Simple Past Tense + Past Perfect Tense

It is used to express a past unreal desire with (if) and (wish).

Ex: If he had studied hard, he could have passed the test.
I wish they had won the final.

135
4. Past Perfect Continuous / Progressive Tense

Position: subject + had + been + verb-ing + Complement.

Negative: subject + had + not + been + verb-ing +
Complement.
Positive Interrogative: had + subject + been + verb-ing + Comp
Negative Interrogative:
hadn’t + subject + been + verb-ing + Complement. (AmE)
had + subject + not + been + verb-ing + Complement. (BrE)

136
Usages:

Past Perfect Continuous / Progressive Tense is used for

the following purposes.

1. It is used to emphasize the duration of an action which was

or wasn’t in progress before another action or time in the past.
Two actions happened in the past, but one action happened
earlier and the other action happened later.
Earlier action: Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Later action: Simple Past Tense.
In this case, since and for are used.

Ex: I had been teaching for 45 minutes by the time he came to

class.

137
Before / by the time / when + Simple Past Tense + Past Perfect
Continuous tense
After + Past Perfect Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense

Ex: Ali got to office at 10:00 am.

Ali got to his office after we had been waiting for him since
8:00 am.
2. It is used to give explanation for those actions which were in
progress very recent to another action or time in the past.

Ex: (Ali’s eyes were red). He had been crying.

(Her hair was wet). She had been taking a shower.
(She was breathless). She had been running fast.
(The child was dirty from head to feet). He had been
playing in the mud.

138
Future Tense and Its Categories

1. Simple Future Tense

These Three words form the Future Tense.
Will
Shall + verb 1
Be going to

Simple Future Tense expresses an action or situation which

will happen in the up coming time or future. Future time
expressions are commonly used.

Ex: We shall finish this class next month.

They will come tomorrow.
He is going to get married next year.

139
Usages of Will:

Will is the widely used modal auxiliary verb that forms the
Future Tense of most lexical verbs. It is commoner than Shall
with all subjects especially in American English. It is more
formal than “Be going to”.

Ex: We will meet tomorrow.

They will arrive at airport at 11:00.

It is used to talk about weak plans which may or may not take
place.

Ex: You will have test next week.

140
Usages of Shall:

Shall is chiefly used in old fashioned formal British English

with “I” and “we” to form Future Tense of most lexical verbs.
Ex: I shall finish this work by tomorrow.
We shall go back home next week.

It is used to form the tag question for the phrase “Let’s + verb
1”.
Ex: Let’s play cricket, shall we?
Let’s go to a restaurant to night, shall we?

It is used as a heavier word than “will” for promise and

determination.
Ex: I shall return your car tomorrow.
We shall win this world cup next year.

141
Usages of Be going to:
Be going to is an expression that forms futurity and is
stronger than Will and Shall. It is informal and can be
sometimes written and articulated as “gonna”.

Ex: I am going to go.

I am gonna go.
It is used to talk about prior plans which are more likely to take
place, for there is an evidence for it.

Ex: We are going to start a new grammar class next week.

She is going to come back soon.
It is used to talk about someone’s intention and predication.
Ex: Ali is going to get married in July.
The weather is cloudy. It is going to rain.
142
It is used to talk about those actions that will happen in very
near or immediate future.

Ex: We are going to study Future Continuous Tense.

I am going to teach you two tenses today.
It is used to talk about those actions or situations which are out
of human control.

Ex: He is going to point.

It is going to rain.
The bomb is going to blast.

143
2. Future Continuous / Progressive Tense:
Will be + verb-ing
Be going to be + verb-ing

Usages:
It is used to show an action which will be in progress at a
particular time in the future.
Note: The stated time is the continuation point not the starting
point.
Ex: I will be teaching at 5:00 pm tomorrow.
They are going to be living in their own house in February
2013.

It is used to talk about an action that will be in progress in

normal course of events in the future.
Ex: Ali will be attending his college class in December of 2013.
He will be going to his office from next week.
144
3. Future Perfect Tense
Positive: subject + will + have + verb 3 + complement.
Negative: subject + will + not + have + verb 3 + complement.
Positive Interrogative: will + subject + have + verb 3 + complement.
Negative Interrogative:
won’t + subject + have + verb 3 + complement. (Am E)
will + subject + not + have + verb 3 + complement. (Br E)
is / am / are + going to + have + verb 3 + complement. (It isn’t very
uncommon but right)
In this tense the first action is done by Future Perfect Simple and the
second action is shown by Simple Present Tense.

Usages:
Future Perfect Tense is used for the following purposes.
It is used to show an action or situation that will or won’t be
completed before another action or time in the future. Or two actions
will happen in future but one will happen earlier and the other will
happen later
145
Earlier / first action: Future Perfect Simple
Later / second action: Simple Present Tense

By the time next

Before + Simple Present Tense +, + Future
Perfect Tense
When

After + Future Perfect Tense+, + Simple Present Tense (isn’t

very common)
Ex: Before you come, I will have cleaned the house.

146
4. Future Perfect Continuous / Progressive

Positive: subject + will + have + been + verb-ing+ comp

Negative: subject + will + not + have + been + verb-ing + comp
Positive Interrogative:
will + subject + have + been + verb-ing + comp
Negative Interrogative:
won’t subject + have + been + verb-ing + comp (Am E)
will + subject + not + have + been + verb-ing + comp (Br E)

Usages:
Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used for the following
purposes.
It is used to emphasize the duration of an action that will or
won’t be in progress before another action or time in the future.
Or two actions will happen in future, but one will happen earlier
and the other will happen later.
147
Earlier / first action: Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Later / second action: Simple Present Tense
Since / for are commonly used.

Before
When + Simple Present Tense+, + Future Perfect
By the time Continuous Tense

Ex: I will have been sleeping for 30 minutes before you

come from office.

148
Subject & Verb Agreement
Chapter 3

149
Subject & verb Agreement Chapter 3
Subject and Verb Agreement
It is also called Subject and Verb Concord.

Def: The verb must agree with its subject in person and
number.
It is only the subject that can determine the singularity and
plurality of the verb.
In a sentence, the subject affects the verb not anything else.

Rules for Subject and Verb Agreement

Rule 1: Singular subject always requires singular verb.

Plural subject always requires plural verb.

150
No (s) on a noun means that the noun is singular.
(s) on a verb means that the verb is singular.

(s) on a noun means that the noun is plural.

No (s) on a verb means that the verb is plural.
Ex: The boy plays cricket.
The boys play cricket.

Note: If the verb doesn’t agree with its subject, it is called

Glaring Error or Error of Proximity.
Ex: The boy deny killing the man. (incorrect)
The boys denies killing the man. (incorrect)

Rule 2: Singular or plural gerund and infinitive phrases are

followed by singular verbs.
Ex: Studying different books makes you bored.
To respect your elders is your duty.
151
Rule 3: Two gerunds and two infinitives combined by the
conjunction expressing different idea take a plural verb.
Ex: To teach five classes and study in university aren’t easy for a
person.
Going to class and not studying anything seem useless to me.

Rule 4: Distributive pronouns are followed by plural noun and

singular verb.
Ex: One of my friends is coming tonight.
None of my students is studying hard.
Either of those girls is allowed to attend my class.
Each one of his friends cheats him.
Rule 5: Distributive adjectives are followed by singular noun and
singular verb.
Ex: Each boy, girl, man, woman and child needs food and
clothes.
Every teacher teaches well.
Neither boy is coming on time.
Either girl is well-dressed. 152
Rule 6: Paired conjunctions can be followed by either singular
or plural verb.

Ex: Both teachers and students want to finish the class.

Neither the students nor the teacher wants to finish the
class.
Either the teacher or the students want to finish the class.
Not only the students but also the teacher wants to finish
the class.

153
Rule 7: Two nouns combined by (And) generally take a plural
verb expressing different idea and
referring to different persons.

Ex: Ali and Mahmood live next to our house.

I and my friends are planning to go to Kabul.

Rule 8: Two nouns combined by (and) referring to the same

person and expressing similar idea take
a singular verb.
Ex: Ali and best friend is getting married soon.
My younger brother and class fellow gets the highest
marks.
Rice and beans is my favorite dish.
My uncle and principal teaches our class.
A red and green parrot is sitting in that tree.

154
Rule 9: Be careful while using a singular or plural verb with
(Here) and (There). Here and There can’t effect the verb.

Here and There are preparatory subjects.

Ex: There is a boy in that class.
Here comes the teacher.
Here come the winners.
There goes the bus.

Rule 10: Indefinite pronouns are always followed by singular

verb.
Ex: Someone is knocking the door.
Anyone who comes late is not allowed.
Something is better than nothing.

155
Rule 11: Police and people are plural nouns and they are
followed by plural verbs.
Ex: Police fear people.
People are in search of food.
Rule 12: All plural titles are treated as singular, so they are
followed by singular verbs.
Ex: Parts of Speech is important topic.
Life Expectations is a beautiful passage.
States of Union is a good movie.
Rule 13: Collective Nouns can be followed by either singular
or plural verb with difference in meaning.
Collective noun + singular verb  The group is working as a
unit.
Collective noun + plural verb  The member is working
individually.
Ex: Pakistani team tries a lot to win.
Pakistani team are committed to win. 156
Rule 14: The expression of time, money and distance are always
followed by singular verb.
Ex: Two hours is suitable time to study for that.
4000 km is for distance to run.
Thirty dollars seems less to me for this work.
Rule 15: Some Prepositional Phrases appear to be plural, but they
can’t affect the verb.
(with, along with, all together with, together with, as well as, besides
etc)
Ex: The director, along with teachers and administrative staff,
needs some days off.
Rule 16: Be careful while using “The number of and “A number of”
The number of + plural noun + singular verb
A number of + plural noun + plural verb
Ex: The number of students is 30 in our class.
A number of students are absent.
Note: “The Number of” is a singular subject and “A Number of “an
expression of number. 157
Sentence & Its Kinds
Chapter 4

158
Sentence & Its Kinds Chapter 4
Sentence
It is derived from a Latin word “Sentential” which means a
thought or an opinion.

Def: Sentence is a complete unit of a language which has a

subject and a predicate and which gives a complete sense or
meaning.
Main Part of Sentence
Sentence has two main parts.

Subject: The person or thing we are talking about is called

Subject.
Or: what the predicate talks about is called Subject.
Ex: Ali plays cricket.
Ali is a teacher. 159
Predicate: A part of sentence talking about the subject is
called predicate.
Ex: He studies at KELC.

Predicate is a verb, but sometimes more than verb.

Predicate = verb + object/Complement

Ex: She eats a mango.

She is beautiful.
We study.

Ex: She is beautiful. =Predicate

She is beautiful. = Complement
We study hard.
She is fast.
She is a teacher.

160
Kinds of Subject and Predicate

There are Two kinds of subject.

Simple Subject
Complete Subject

Simple Subject
It is the main subject to which the main verb agrees.

Complete Subject
Is the Simple Subject alone with some other words that come
before and after it.

Ex: The boys come from different places at KELC.

Most of the boys from different parts of Afghanistan
stay in hostel.

161
Kinds of Predicate
Simple Predicate
Complete Predicate
Simple Predicate
Is the only verb that is governed by main subject.
Complete Predicate
Is the simple predicate along with all the other words that come after.
Ex: Laila goes to school.
Laila goes to school.
Major Kinds of Sentences
They are sentences according to meaning.
There are Five kinds of sentences according to meaning.
1. Assertive / Declarative Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentences
3. Imperative Sentences
4. Exclamatory Sentences
5. Optative Sentences
162
Assertive / Declarative Sentences: This kind of sentence is
used to state a fact. It ends with a period.
Ex: Allah (S.W.T) is most merciful.
We study English grammar at KELC.

Interrogative Sentence: This kind of sentence is used to ask

questions.
It ends with a question mark.
Ex: Where did they find the gold?
Have you eaten lunch?

Imperative Sentence: This kind of sentence is used to give

advice, warning, direction and instructions etc.
It ends with a period and the subject is understand to be (You).
Ex: Don’t waste your time with street boys.
Tell Ali to polish my shoes.

163
Exclamatory Sentences: This kind of sentence is used to show
some emotions or sudden feelings of mind. It ends with an
exclamation point or exclamation mark.
Ex: Ali is going to America!
All that glitters aren’t gold!
Optative Sentence
This kind of sentence is used to offer a wish or a prayer. It ends with
a period.
Ex: May you live long.
I wish you a very happy married.
Rules for English Sentences
It should have at least one subject and verb or sometimes only a
verb can also be a sentence.
It should be properly capitalized and punctuated.
There should be equal spaces between the words of sentence.
One sentence should have logical parts.
A sentence should be proofread, revised and edited.
A sentence must have at least one Independent Clause.
Ex: You will pass the test.
If you study hard, you will be passed. 164
Active Voice & Passive Voice
Chapter 5

165
Active Voice & Passive Voice Chapter 5
Active and Passive Voice

What does Voice mean?

It means sound, but it is a form of a verb in grammar that
shows whether the subject does something or something is
done to the subject.

Or: it shows whether Subject is performing the action or

receiving the action.

166
Kinds of Voice:
There are Two kinds of Voice.

Active voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is performing the
action, it is called Active Voice.
Or: In Active Voice the subject performs the action from the actual
position and the object receives the action from the actual position.
Ex: Ali eats an apple.
Sub/obj V obj/sub

Passive voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is receiving the action
it is called Passive Voice.
Or: In Passive Voice the subject performs the action from the
unactual position and the object receives the action from the
unactual position.
Ex: An apple is eaten by Ali.
Sub V obj
167
Rules for changing Active Voice into Passive Voice
Divide the sentence into subject, verb and object.
Ex: We study English.
Sub V obj
Change the object of active voice into the subject of Passive
Voice.
Ex: English
Subject
Use a form of to be verb according to new subject and verb
tense of Active Voice.
Ex: English is
Sub V
Use past participle form of the verb used in Active Voice.
Ex: English is taught
Sub V V3
Change the subject of Active Voice into a part of (By phrase) in
Passive Voice.
Ex: English is taught by us.
168
Sub V V3 obj
What is By Phrase?
It is the person who performs the action in both Active and
Passive Voice. Using by phrase is important when the subject
of Active Voice is a proper noun or when it provides extra
information about the performer.

Note: It is also called Actor or Agent.

Note: The following Tenses are uncommon in Passive Voice.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

Ex: Ali has been washing the car.
The car has been being washed by Ali.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

Ex: They had been playing cricket.
Cricket had been being played by them. .
169
Future Continuous Tense:
Ex: She will be cooking a big dinner.
A big dinner will be being cooked by her.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

Ex: They will have been writing a book.
A book will have been being written by them.

Why do we use Active and Passive Voice?

We prefer Active Voice in the following cases:

When we are more interested in the performer of the action.
Ex: Ali delivers a speech about terrorisms.
When we want to avoid confusion.

170
We prefer Passive Voice in the following cases:
When we don’t know or have forgotten who performed the action.
Ex: The jug was broken.
When we are more interested in the action than its performer.
Ex: The room was decorated.
When we want to bring a variety in our speaking and writing.
Ex: The jug was broken by Ahmad. Instead of Ahmad broke the
jug.
When it is not important or already clear who is, were or will be the
performer.
Ex: The criminals were arrested.
Rice is grown in India.

When we want to emphasize or give importance to the receiver.

Ex: The students are taught by a good teacher.
When the subject of Active Voice is Indefinite Pronouns or People.
Ex: The glass was broken.
Large buildings are built. 171
Changing Present Tenses into Passive Voice:

Simple Present Tense:

Structures:
Subject + is/am/are + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: She washes the dishes every day.
The dishes are washed every day by her.
Subject + is/am/are + not + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: She does not wash the dishes every day.
The dishes are not washed every day by her.
Is/am/are + subject + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Does she wash the dishes every day?
Are the dishes washed every day by her?

172
Present Continuous Tense:
Structures:

Subject + is/am/are + being + verb3 + by phrase

(Positive)
Ex: Ali is studying maths.
Math is being studied by Ali.

Subject + is/am/are + not + being + verb3 + by phrase

(Negative)
Ex: Ali is not studying maths.
Maths is not being studied by Ali.

Is/am/are + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase

(Interrogative)
Ex: Is Ali studying maths?
Is maths being studied by Ali?
173
Present Perfect Tense:
Structures:
Subject + have/has + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: They have bought a car.
A car has been bought by them.
Subject + have/has + not + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: They have not bought a car.
A car has not been bought by them.
Have/has + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Have they bought a car?
Has a car been bought by them?

174
Changing Past Tenses into Passive Voice

Simple Past Tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: I visited Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was visited the day before yesterday by me.
Subject + was/were + not + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: I didn’t visit Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was not visited the day before yesterday by me.
Was/were + subject + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Did I visit Laila the day before yesterday?
Was Laila visited the day before yesterday by me?

175
Past Continuous Tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + being + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: Laila was watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was being watched yesterday by Laila.
Subject + was/were + not + being + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: Laila was not watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was not being watched yesterday by Laila.
Was/were + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Was Laila watching cricket yesterday?
Was cricket being watched yesterday by Laila?

176
Past Perfect Tense:

Structures:
Subject + had + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: Laila had broken the vase.
The vase had been broken by her.
Subject + had + not + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: Laila had not broken the vase.
The vase had not been broken by her.
Had + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Had Laila broken the vase?
Had the vase been broken by her?

177
Changing Future Tenses into Passive Voice

Simple Future Tense:

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + be + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: We will paint the house tomorrow.
The house will be painted tomorrow by us.
Subject + will/shall + not + be + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: We will not paint the house tomorrow.
The house will not be painted tomorrow by us.
Will/shall + Subject + be + verb3 + by phrase
(Interrogative)
Ex: Will we paint the house tomorrow?
Will the house be painted tomorrow by us?

178
Future Perfect Tense:
Structures:
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Positive)
Ex: She will have cooked dinner before you clean the house.
Dinner will have been cooked by her before the
house is cleaned by you.
Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + verb3 + by phrase
(Negative)
Ex: She will not have cooked dinner before you clean the house.
Dinner will not have been cooked by her before the is house
cleaned by you.

Will/shall + subject + have + been + verb3 + by phrase

(Interrogative)
Ex: Will she have cooked dinner before you clean the house?
Will dinner have been cooked by her before the house is
cleaned by you?
179
Changing Have/Has to/ Be going to/Ought to into Passive
Voice:

Structure:
Subject + Have/Has to/ Be going to/Ought to + be + verb3 + by
phrase

Ex: She has to study English.

English has to be studied by her.
They ought to wash the car.
The car ought to be washed by them.
I am going to call you.
You are going to be called by me.

180
Changing Imperative Sentences into Passive Voice:

Structure:
Let + object + be + verb3 (Positive imperative)
Ex: Close your books.
Let your books be closed.
Bring me a glass of water.
Let the glass of water be brought for me.

Let + object + not + be + verb3

Ex: Don’t touch the stove.
Let the stove not be touched.
Don’t tell lie.
Let lie not be told.

181
Changing Information Questions into Passive Voice:

Structure:

W.H words + auxiliary + subject + verb3 + by phrase

Ex: When does she call you?
When are you called by her?
Why are you studying English?
Why is English being studied by you?
Who gave you flowers?
Who were you given flowers by?

182
Direct & Indirect Speech
Chapter 6

183
Direct & Indirect Speech Chapter 6
What is Speech?
A talk or dialogue between two persons is called Speech.
Or: A lecture given to a number of audiences is called speech.
Or: Speech is the way, act and power of speaking.

Kinds of speech

1. Direct speech
It refers to reproducing the exact words of a speaker.
Or: We represent the exact words of a speaker in his/her own
words to someone without any modifications.

184
Key points:
It is made of two parts.
A) Reporting speech. It contains subject and a reporting verb.
B) Reported speech. It contains the exact words of a speaker.
Ex: Ali said, “I am too tired.”

Reporting Speech Reported Speech

Reporting speech can come before or after the reported
speech.

Note: If reporting speech is used at the beginning then comma

is used out of the inverted commas.
If reporting speech is used at the end then comma is used
inside inverted commas.

Ex: Laila said, “I hate you.”

“I hate you,” said Laila.
185
The exact words of a speaker will be placed inside the
quotation marks, speech marks, inverted commas or double
commas.

The first letter inside quotation marks will always be

capitalized.
All signs of punctuations must be placed inside the quotation
marks

Indirect speech
It refers to reproducing the main idea of exact words of a
speaker.
Or: We represent the essence of a speaker’s exact words with
a few modifications to someone.

186
Key points:

It is made of two parts.

A) Main clause. It contains subject and verb to support the noun
clause in terms of Completion of its meaning.

B) Noun clause. It contains the essence of a speaker’s exact words.

Ex: Ali said that he was too tired.
Main. clause Noun clause

•No comma or quotation marks will be used.

•Noun clause markers (That, If/Whether, W.H words) are used.
•That can be omitted after say and tell.
•But That can not be omitted after other verbs.
•If the reporting verb is in the past tense, tenses and words
indicating nearness of time and positions will be changed.
•Tenses may not be changed even if the reporting verb is in
the past tense, but it is very informal.
187
Tenses Changes

 Simple Present Tense to Simple Past Tense

 Present Continuous Tense to Past Continuous Tense
 Present Perfect Tense to Past Perfect Tense
 Present Perfect Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense
 Simple Past Tense to Past Perfect Tense
 Past Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense
 Past Perfect Tense to Past Perfect Tense
 Past Perfect Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense

188
Changes in Modal Auxiliaries

 Can to Could  Will to Would

 May to Might  Might to Might
 Have to/Has to to Had to  Must to Had to
 Shall to Should  Could to Could
 Had to to Had to  Would to Would
 Ought to to Ought to  Had better to
Had better

189
Some other words changes
This to That These to Those
Now to Then Thus to So
So to Very Ago to Before
Just to Then Here to There
Hither to Thither Come to Go
Bring to Take Hence to Thence / Therefore
Today to That Day Tonight to That Night
Yesterday to The previous day /the last day
Tomorrow to the next day /the following day
The day after tomorrow to /the day after the next day
The day before yesterday to /the day before the previous day
190
 •No changes will occur if the reporting verb is in the present
or future tense.
Ex: Ali says, “You are a bad boy.”
Ali says that I am a bad boy.
They will say, “The weather is too hot.”
They will say that the weather is too hot.

•Pronouns will be changed according to SON formula.

SON stands for:
S: Subject changes. I and We will change according to the
subject of reporting verb.
O: Object changes. You will change according to the object of
reporting verb.
N: No changes. He, she, It and They will not change.
• Yes/yeah/no/hi/ and hello are removed.
Ex: The teacher said, “Yes, I will come.”
The teacher said that he would go. 191
1. Changing Declarative sentence into Indirect Speech

Structure:
Subject + reporting verb (Said/told) + that + subject + verb +
Comp

Said + noun clause

Said + to + object + noun clause
Told + object + noun clause

Ex: His father said, “He is hard working.”

His father said that he was hard working.

She told me, “I will help you.”

She told me that she would help me.

192
2. Changing Interrogative Sentences into Indirect Speech
A: Yes/No Questions

Structures:

Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to

know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)
+ If/Whether + subject + verb + Comp

Ex: Laila said, “Will Ali be present tomorrow?”

Laila asked if Ali would be present the next day.

My father told me, “Is it raining now?”

My father questioned me if it was raining then.

193
B: W. H. Questions

Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to

know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)
+ W.H words + subject + verb + Comp

Ex: Her mother said, “Who broke the jug?”

Her mother inquired who had broken the jug.

The students said, “When does the class end?”

The students wanted to know when the class ended.

194
3. Changing Imperative Sentences into Indirect Speech
A: Positive Imperative

Structures:
Subject + reporting verb (instructed, told, advised, requested,
forced, ordered) + to + verb1
Ex: The teacher said, “Bring a glass of water.”
The teacher ordered to take a glass of water.

The man said, “Walk four blocks to the west.”

The man instructed to walk four blocks to the west.

She said, “Please, respect your elders.”

She advised to respect my elders.

The commanders shouted, “Attack on the enemies.”

The commanders forced to attack on the enemies. 195
B: Negative Imperative

Subject + reporting verb (instructed, told, advised, requested,

forced, ordered) + not + to + verb1

Ex:
The mother said, “Don’t touch the hot stove.”
The mother advised not to touch the hot stove.

She told me, “Don’t smoke cigar.”

She advised me not to smoke cigar.

196
4. Changing Exclamatory Sentences into Indirect Speech
Structure:
Subject + exclaimed with + noun (Joy, surprise, happiness,
sadness, displeasure, pain ) + that or W.H words subject +
verb + Comp
Ex:
The players said, “Hurrah! We won the match.”
The players exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.
Ali said, “What a high mountain it is!”
Ali exclaimed with surprise what a high mountain it was.

Laila said, “Ouch! I cut my finger.”

Laila exclaimed with pain that she had cut her finger.

Ahmad said, “How difficult this test is!”

Ahmad exclaimed with displeasure how difficult that test was.
197
Situations under which formal sequence of tenses is not allowed
• A universal fact:
Ex: Our teacher said, “Allah is the most merciful and Compassionate

Our teacher said that Allah is the most merciful and Compassionate.
• A general fact:
Ex: Ali said, “She is young and beautiful.”
Ali said that she is young and beautiful.
A past historical event:
Ex: My father said, “Pakistan came into being on 14 August, 1947.”
My father said that Pakistan came into being on 14 August,
1947.
• Improbable conditional clause:
Ex: Our teacher said, “If you studied hard, you will pass the test.”
Our teacher said that if I studied hard, I would pass the test.
• Real conditional clause:
Ex: Her father said, “If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.”
Her father said that if it rains, the picnic will be cancelled. 198
Gerund & Infinitive
Chapter 7

199
Gerund & Infinitive Chapter 7
Gerund
It is derived from a Latin word “Gerere” which means to do or
to perform something.
Definition: It is a word ending with the ing form of a verb that
has the force of a verb and a noun, so it is also called verbal
noun.
Note: It is basically a verb in its ing form, but functions as a
noun. It is a noun that shows an action or names an action. It
is most often singular, so it requires the pronoun It.
Ex: She likes swimming. It is a good exercise.
But sometimes gerund has a plural form, so it requires the
pronoun They.
Ex: I like writings of Shakespeare. They are about love, piece
and sympathy. 200
Some Structures of Gerund
 Verb ing + noun/adverb/prepositional phrase makes gerund
phrase.
Ex: Washing the car is a big problem.
Swimming in the ocean can be dangerous.
Driving fast is risky.
 Singular gerund phrase + singular verb
Ex: Smoking cigarette is a bad habit.
 Plural gerund phrase + singular verb
Ex: Washing the dishes is your duty.
Usages of Gerund
It can be used in the following cases.
As a subject of a verb:
Ex: Smoking cigar is a bad habit.
Subject 201
 As the object of a verb:
Ex: She loves swimming in the ocean.
Object

As the object of a preposition:

Note: It can used in Three structures.

Verb + Preposition + Gerund
Ex: Our teacher insists on coming to class on time.
V P G

Adjective + Preposition + Gerund

Ex: I am tired of teaching English.
Adj P G

Noun + Preposition + Gerund

Ex: My father is the head of hiring people.
N P G
202
As the Complement of Be:
Ex: My desire is helping my nation.
Be obj
After the adverb (No) to indicate prohibition:
Ex: No smoking.
No parking.

Infinitive
It is derived from a Latin word “Infinitivus” which means
unlimited.

Definition: To + Base form of the verb that functions as a noun

is called Infinitive.

Note: It is also called Verbal Noun. To is called an Infinitive

Marker when it is used before base form of the verb, but it is a
preposition when it is used before gerund or noun.
203
Some Structures of Infinitive

To + base form of the verb + noun/adverb/prepositional phrase

makes infinitive phrase.
Ex: To wash the car is a big problem.

To swim in the ocean can be dangerous.

To drive fast is risky.

Singular Infinitive Phrase + singular verb

Ex: To watch movie is a bad habit.

Plural Infinitive Phrase + singular verb

Ex: To wash the dishes is your duty.
204
Usages of Infinitive:
It can be used in the following cases:

As a subject of a verb:
Ex: To respect elders is our major duty.
Subject

As the object of a verb:

Ex: We want to finish the class.
Object

As the object of a preposition:

Note: It is used after two prepositions, Except and But.
Ex: We have no choice but to study our lessons.
Object

Ex: He could not do anything except to cheat his parents.

Object
205
As the Complement of Be:
Ex: My plan is to go to America.
Comp

To modify a verb and show a clear purpose:

Ex: We come to KELC to learn English.
Adverb

Kind of Infinitive
There are Three kinds of infinitive.

1. Full/Absolute/Noun infinitive
2. Bare/plain infinitive
3. Split infinitive

206
Full infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by To + Base form of the verb.
Ex: She likes to study Computer programming.

Bare infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by only base form of the verb
without To.
Ex: You must come on time.

Split infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by To + Adverb + Base form of the
verb for the sake of emphasis.
Ex: Ahmad likes to really learn English.

207
REFERENCE LIST OF VERBS FOLLOWED ONLY BY GERUNDS
Admit: He admitted stealing the money.
Advise: She advised waiting until tomorrow.
Anticipate: I anticipated having a good time on vacation.
Appreciate: I appreciated hearing from them.
Avoid: He avoided answering my questions.
Complete: I finally completed writing my term paper.
Consider: I will consider going with you.
Delay: She delayed leaving for school.
Deny: She denied committing the crime.
Discuss: They discussed opening a new business.
208
Dislike: I disliked driving long distances.
Enjoy: We enjoyed visiting them.
Finish: She finished studying English at ten.
Forget: I will never forget visiting Napoleon’s tomb.
Can’t help: I can’t help worrying about it.
Keep: I keep hoping he will come.
Mention: She mentioned going to a movie.
Mind: Would you mind helping me with this?
Miss: I miss being with my family.
Postpone: Let’s postpone leaving until tomorrow.
Practice: The athlete practiced throwing the ball.
Quit: He quit trying to solve the problem. 209
Recall: I don’t recall meeting him before.
Recollect: I don’t recollect meeting him before.
Recommend: She recommended seeing the show.
Regret: I regret telling him my secret.
Remember: I can’t remember meeting him when I was a child.
Resent: I resent her interfering in my business.
Resist: I couldn’t resist eating the desert.
Risk: She risks losing all of her money.
Stop: She stopped going to classes when she got sick.
Suggest: She suggested going to a movie.
Tolerate: She won’t tolerate cheating during an examination.
Understand: I don’t understand his leaving school. 210
REFERENCE LISTS OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITVES

Afford: I can’t afford to buy it.

Agree: They agreed to help us.
Appear: She appears to be tired.
Arrange: I will arrange to meet you at the airport.
Ask: He asked to come with us.
Beg: He begged to come with us.
Care: I don’t care to see that show.
Claim: She claims to know a famous movie star.
Consent: She finally consented to marry him.
Decide: I have decided to leave on Monday.
211
Demand: I demanded to know who is responsible.
Deserve: She deserves to win the prize.
Expect: I expect to enter graduate school in the fall.
Fail: She failed to return the book to the library on time.
Forget: I forget to mail the letter.
Hesitate: Don’t hesitate to ask for my help.
Hope: Jack hopes to arrive next week.
Learn: He learned to play the piano.
Manage: She managed to finish her work early.
Mean: I didn’t mean to hurt your feelings.
Need: I need to have your opinion?
Offer: They offered to help us. 212
Plan: I am planning to have a party.
Prepare: We are prepared to welcome them.
Pretend: He pretends not to understand.
Promise: I promise not to be late.
Refuse: I refuse to believe his story.
Regret: I regret to tell you that you failed.
Remember: I remembered to lock the door.
Seem: That cat seems to be friendly.
Struggle: I struggled to stay awake.
Swear: She swore to tell the truth.
Threaten: He threatened to tell my parents.
213
Volunteer: He volunteered to help us.
Wait: I will wait to hear from you.
Want: I want to tell you something.
Wish: She wishes to come with us.
Wait: I will wait to hear from you.
Want: I want to tell you something.
Wish: She wishes to come with us.

214
VERBS FOLLOWED BY A (PRO)NOUN + AN INFINITIVE
Advise: She advised me to wait until tomorrow.
Allow: She allowed me to use her car.
Ask: I asked John to help us.
Beg: They begged us to come.
Cause: Her laziness caused her to fail.
Challenge: She challenged me to race her to the corner.
Convince: I couldn’t convince him to accept our help.
Dare: He dared me to do better that he had done.
Encourage: He encouraged me to try again.
Expect: I expect you to be on time.
Forbid: I forbid you to tell him. 215
Force: They forced him to tell the truth.
Hire: She hired a boy to mow the lawn.
Instruct: He instructed them to be careful.
Invite: Harry invited the Johnson’s to come to his party.
Need: We needed Chris to help us figure out the solution.
Order: The judge ordered me to pay a fine.
Permit: He permitted the children to stay up late.
Persuade: I persuaded him to come for a visit.
Remind: She reminded me to lock the door.
Require: Our teacher requires us to be on time.
Teach: My brother taught me to swim.
216
Tell: The doctor told me to take these pills.
Urge: I urged her to apply for the job.
Want: I want you to be happy.
Warn: I warned you not to drive too fast.
Urge: I urged her to apply for the job.
Want: I want you to be happy.
Warn: I warned you not to drive too fast.

217
Verbs followed by both Gerund and Infinitive with
a clear difference in meaning

They are: Remember Forget, Regret, Try and Stop.

Remember:

Remember + Infinitive: It means one remembers his/her duty,

job, responsibility or task.

Ex: The students remember to write their homework.

Remember + Gerund: It means one remembers what
happened in the past.

Ex: We remember fighting in our university.

218
Forget:
Forget + Infinitive: It means one forgets his/her duty, job,
responsibility or task.

Ex: The robbers broke into the house because the guard
forgot to lock the door.
Forget + Gerund: It means one forgets what happened in the
past.
Ex: I want to watch 3 idiots; I forget watching that movie.
Regret:
Regret + Infinitive: It means one informs someone of bad
news.
Ex: I regret to tell that you failed the test.
Regret + Gerund: It means one feels sad what happened in
the past.
Ex: I regret not listening to my father advice
219
Try:
Try + Infinitive: It means one struggles to do something.

Ex: Every student tries to get first position.

Try + Gerund: It means one conducts an experiment.
Ex: The room was hot, I tried opening the window.

Stop:
Stop + Infinitive: Means that there are two actions; the first
action stops for the sake of the second
one and shows a purpose.

Ex: While walking in Saddar, Neelam saw me, so she stopped

to talk to me.
Stop + Gerund: Means that there is only one action that stops.
Ex: When the teacher enters the class, all the students stop
talking.
220
Verbs followed by both Gerund and Infinitive with little or
no difference in meaning

They are: Start, begin, commence, continuous, like, love, hate,

cease, omit, intend, can’t stand, can’t bear, deserve, dread,
bother, fear, attempt and prefer.

Ex: I started to teach at KELC.

I started teaching at KELC.
She loves swimming in the ocean.
She loves to swim in the ocean.

Note: If any of these verbs is used in progressive tenses, only

infinitive is used though using Gerund is not wrong. Gerund is
uncommon, for two (ING) forms sound awkward, but using
Gerund is right.

221
Ex: It was beginning to rain. (Common)
It was beginning raining. (Uncommon but right)

Prefer for Comparison

Structures:

 Prefer + to + verb1 + (rather) than + (to) + verb

Ex: She prefers to live in Kabul rather than (to) live in Peshawar.

 Prefer + verbing + to + verbing

Ex: She prefers living in Kabul to living in Peshawar.

222
 Clause
Chapter 8

223
Clause Chapter 8
It is derived from a Latin word “clausa” or “claudere” which
means to close.
Definition: A group of words containing a subject and a verb
that forms a part of sentence is called clause.

Kinds of Clause
There are Two kinds of clause.
1. Independent or Complete clause
2. Dependent, Subordinate or Incomplete clause

Independent or Complete Clause

It is a complete sentence containing subject and a verb. It
gives a Complete meaning independently and does not need
to be combined to any other clause for a complete meaning.
Ex: He bought a car last week. 224
Dependent, Subordinate and Incomplete Clause

It is not a complete sentence although it has subject and verb.

It does not give a Complete meaning independently and has to
be combined to a main clause for a complete meaning.

Structure: Marker + subject + verb + Comp

Ex: If she studies hard.
While I was teaching.

Kinds of Dependent Clause

1. Adjective clause
2. Adverb clause
3. Noun clause

225
Adjective clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adjective
in a sentence is called Adjective Clause.

Or: A group of words containing a subject and a verb and

serving the same function as an adjective in a sentence is
called Adjective Clause.

Key points:
It is also called Relative Clause.
It is not used in interrogative structures.
It should be made from the second sentence.
It should always be placed as close as possible to
Antecedent/Head Noun/Modified Noun or Referent.
It modifies noun and pronoun in the main clause and
sometimes the whole main clause.

226
Markers/Connecters/Linkers and Introducers of Adjective
Clause

There are Three kinds of markers of adjective clause.

• Relative/Connective Pronouns (Who, whom, which and
that)
• Relative Adjective or Determiner (Whose)
• Relative Adverbs (Where and when)

Cases of Relative Pronouns in Adjective Clause

1. There are Three cases

2. Subjective/Nominative case
3. Objective/Accusative case
4. Dative/Oblique case

227
Subjective/Nominative Case
In this case the pronouns are used as a subject of a verb in
adjective clause.
Structure: Who//which/that + verb + Comp
Ex: The teacher who teaches at KELC is my best friend.
Objective/Accusative Case:
In this case the pronouns are used as the object of a verb in
adjective clause.
Structure: Who/whom/which/that + subject + verb + Comp
Note: In objective case the relative pronouns can be deleted,
but very informally.
Note: When relative pronouns are deleted, the adjective
clause is called Zero,
Contact and unmarked adjective clause.
Ex: Some animals which people are killing now and then are
falling in extinction. 228
Dative/Oblique case:
In this case the pronouns are used as the object of
preposition.

Structure:
Preposition + whom/which + subject + verb + Comp (Formal)

Ex: Ali thanks the people from whom he received the gifts
from.

Whom, who, which, that, O + subject + verb + preposition +

Comp (Informal)

Ex: Ali thanks the people whom he received the gifts.

229
Places of formal and informal of Relative Pronouns
1: Who: used only for people
Sub. Case: Formal
Obj. Case: Informal
Oblique Case: Informal
2: Whom: used only for people
Sub. Case: Never
Obj. Case: Formal
Oblique Case: Formal
3: Which: used only for animals and things
Sub. Case: Formal
Obj. Case: Formal
Oblique Case: Formal

4: That: used only for People, animals and things

Sub. Case: Informal
Obj. Case: Informal
Oblique Case: Informal 230
Embedded and Unembedded Adjective Clause

Embedded Adjective Clause: When the Antecedent is used

as a subject then the Adjective Clause is called Embedded
Adjective Clause.

Structure: Subject + adjective clause + verb + ROTS.

Ex: The book which is mine is on the table.
Sub adj. clause V ROTS

Unembedded adjective clause:

When the antecedent is used as an object then the Adjective
Clause is called Unembedded Adjective Clause.

Structure: Subject + verb + object + adjective clause

Ex: I know the girl who studies a lot.
Sub V object adj. clause

231
Relative Adjective or Determiner (Whose)

Key points:
It is used to show possession or ownership.
It is always connected to a noun (Whose + noun).
It can not be deleted or replaced.
It replaces possessive adjective in the second sentence.
It is used for people, things and animals.
For animals/things, we mostly use (of which+noun)/(noun+of which)

Structure:
Whose + noun + (subject) + verb + Comp

Ex: The boy whose father someone killed is crying.

We watched the house whose rooms are too small.
Rooms of which
Of which rooms

232
Relative Adverbs (Where and when)
Using Where:

Key points:
It modifies a place or location in the Adjective Clause.
If Where is used them no preposition is required.
If Where is not used, the prepositions In, On and At are used
but only before which.

Structures:
Where + subject + verb + Comp (Very formal
In, at, on + which + subject + verb + Comp (Formal)
Which/that/O+subject + verb+ In/at/on + Comp

233
Ex: The building where my grand parents lived is old.
The building in which my grand parents lived is old.
The building which my grand parents lived in is old.
The building that my grand parents lived in is old.
The building my grant parents lived in is old.
Using When
Key points:
•It modifies a noun of time in the Adjective Clause.
•It can be deleted.
•If when is used, no preposition is required.
•If When is not used, then the prepositions On and At are
used but only before which.

Structures:
When + subject + verb + Comp (Very formal)
On, at + which + subject + verb + Comp
That + which + subject + verb + Comp
234
Ex: I dislike Sundays when many guests come.
I dislike Sundays on which many guests come.
I dislike Sundays that many guests come.
I dislike Sundays many guests come.

Punctuation of Adjective Clauses

There are Two kinds of Adjective Clause according to
punctuation.
1. Restrictive/Descriptive/Identifying/Modifying/Defining/
Essential Adjective Clause
2. Non-restrictive/Non-descriptive/Non-identifying/Non-
modifying/Non-defining / Non-essential Adjective Clause

235
1. Restrictive Adjective Clause
This kind of Adjective Clause is used to give essential or
important information about the Antecedent and it is important to
identify the Antecedent.

Key points:
• It is followed by a common Antecedent.
Ex: The students who are in grammar class are from China.
• It is never set off by a comma (s) from the main clause.
•All pronouns are formally and informally used.
• Deletion of pronouns is possible in objective case.
• Essential information cannot be deleted because clarity is lost.
• It refers to (any)
Ex: The students who come late will be charged.
Ex: The car that is parked outside is Ali’s.

236
Non-Restrictive Adjective Clause
This kind of Adjective Clause is used to give extra or additional
information about the Antecedent and it is not important to
identify the Antecedent.
Key points:
• It is followed by a proper antecedent.
Ex: Ali, who is Program Coordinator of KELC, is my best friend.
• It is set off by a comma (s) from the main clause.
• It is used in daily formal written English.
• Only Formal Markers are used.
• Deletion of pronouns is impossible even in objective or dative
case.
• Extra information can be deleted because clarity is not lost.237
 •It is used to talk about a whole/Complete group with a plural
Antecedent.
Ex: The students, who come late, will be charged.
• It is used to mean only one with a singular Antecedent.
Ex: The car, which is parked outside, is Ali’s.

Reduction of Adjective Clause into Adjective Phrase

An Adjective Phrase is the reduction of Adjective Clause which
modifies a noun. It is also called reduced Adjective Clause.
Adjective Clause can be changed into Adjective Phrase under
one condition and that is Subjective Case.
Structure: Who/which/that + verb + Comp 238
How to reduce Adjective Clause into Adjective Phrase
Key points:
• Delete the relative pronouns (Who, which, that) that are the
markers and subjects of the Adjective Clause.
• Delete all the forms of to be verbs if used in Adjective Clause.
• Change the active main verb into its (ing) form.
• No change will occur in a passive main verb.
• Use having + v.3 that is called perfect participle for
changing perfect tenses.
Ex: Afghanistan, which is located in the heart of Asia, is
our homeland.
Afghanistan, located in the heart of Asia, is our homeland.
239
We live in a house that consists of five rooms.
We live in a house consisting of five rooms.

The story that is about Afghanistan is written by Ahmad.

The story about Afghanistan is written by Ahmad.

The movie that has been telecasted is about fight.

The movie having been telecasted is about fight.

The city that was destroyed by flood is going to be

reconstructed.
The city destroyed by flood is going to be reconstructed.

Anyone who does not want to come should stay home.

Anyone not wanting to come should stay home.

240
Adverb Clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adverb
in a sentence is called Adverb Clause.
Or : A group of words containing a subject and a verb and
serving the same function as an adverb in a sentence is called
Adverb Clause.

Key points:
• It is also called Adverbial Clause.
• It is a dependent clause and it should be used with a Main
Clause.
• It modifies an adjective, a verb and another adverb in the
main clause.
• It is not used in interrogative structures.
• It disallows the usage of future tense.
• It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions.
• It can be used before or after the main clause.
241
Structures:
Marker + sub + verb + RS+, + subject + verb + RS(periodic)
Adverb clause Main Clause

Subject + verb + RS + marker + subject + verb + RS(loose)

Main Clause Adverb clause

Kinds of Adverb Clause

1. Adverb Clause of Time
2. Adverb Clause of Cause and Effect
3. Adverb Clause of Purpose
4. Adverb Clause of Condition
5. Adverb Clause of Contrast

242
1. Adverb Clause of Time
This kind of Adverb Clause is used to show the time
relationship. It is introduced by the following markers:
After, before, when, till, until, as, while, as soon as, once, as
long as, so long as, since

When:
It means at that time and it can be used with both past and
present tenses.
Ex: When I go to college, I will meet her.
When Ali came, I was watching a movie.

After:
It means after that period and it can be used with simple
present tense to give future meaning or it can be used with
past perfect tense.
Ex: After I eat lunch, I will attend the class.
He got a job after he had graduated from the university. 243
Before:
It means before that period and it can be used with simple
present or simple past tenses.
Ex: I will get married before I graduate.
Before he came to class, he had written his homework.

Till/until:
They both mean up to that time and they can be used with
simple present or simple past tense.
Ex: I have to stay here until he comes.
We will be in the class till the bell rings.

While/As:
They both mean during that time and they can be used with
past continuous tense.
Ex: While I was playing cricket, it started to rain.
As I was playing cricket, it started to rain.
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Since:
It means from that time and it can be used with Present
Perfect, and Past Perfect Present Perfect Progressive.
Ex: I have worked at KELC since I graduate from school.
She has visited many places since she came to Peshawar.

2. Adverb Clause of Cause and Effect

This kind of Adverb Clause is used to show the cause and
effect relationship.
It is introduced by the following markers:
Because, since, as, as long as, so long as, and inasmuch as.

Note: They all mean because.

Ex: Since she was tired, she went to bed early.
Inasmuch as I was sick, I didn’t go to the class.

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3. Adverb Clause of Purpose
This kind of Adverb Clause is used to indicate the purpose of an
action.
It is introduced by the following markers:
So (that) and (in order) that

Structures:
So (that)/(in order) that+ simple present tense/can/will/may+ v1, simple present
tense.
Ex: We come to KELC so that we learn English.

So (that)/ (in order) that+ simple past tense/could/would/might+ v1, simple past
tense.
Ex: Last night I went home early in order that I could sleep early.

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Note: It is possible but less common to use (so that or in order
that) at beginning.

Ex: So that Ali buys mobile, he goes to Bazaar.

In order that the food wouldn’t spoil, she put it in the
refrigerator.

4. Adverb Clause of Condition

This kind of Adverb Clause is used to show a real or unreal
condition.
It is introduced by the following markers:
If, unless

If: It is used to indicate a real or unreal condition.

Ex: If I were a girl, I would marry you.

If you study hard, you will get first position.
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Unless:
It is used to indicate the negative meaning of a sentence. It means if
not or except if. If + negative verb equals / unless + positive verb.
Ex: Unless you have money, I will leave you.
If you don’t have money, I will leave you.

Kinds of Condition Clause

There are Five kinds of If Clause.
1. Open/Real/True/ Natural Conditional Clause
2. Untrue/Unnatural/Imaginary/ Improbable Conditional Clause
3. Zero Conditional Clause
4. Unfulfilled/Counterfactual Conditional Clause
5. Mixed Time Conditional Clause

Open Conditional Clause:

It is used to show a real meaning in the present or future.
Structure:
If + simple present tense+, + subject + can/will/may +
v1 + RS
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EX: If it rains, we will not play cricket.
Untrue Conditional Clause:
It is used to show an unreal meaning in the present or future.
Structure:
If +simple past tense+, + subject + would/could/
might + v.1 + RS
Ex: If Ali had money, he would buy a car.

Zero conditional clause:

It is used to show an automatic/habitual result/scientific fact.
Structure:
If + simple present tense+, + simple present tense
Ex: If Ahmad wants to exercise, he runs a mile or swims.

Unfulfilled conditional clause:

It is used to show an unreal meaning in the past.
Structure:
If + past perfect tense, +sub+ would/could/might +
have + v3 249
Mixed time conditional clause:
It is used to show an unreal meaning in the present or past.
Structure:
If +past perfect tense+,+ sub + would/could/might +
v1+ RS.
Ex: If Ali had gotten married last year, he would have a son now.
If I had eaten lunch, I would not be hungry now.

5. Adverb Clause of Contrast

This kind of Adverb Clause is used to show either a direct or
indirect contrast between main clause.

Kinds of Adverb Clause of Contrast

There are Two kinds of Adverb Clause of Contrast
1. Direct contrast
2. Indirect contrast

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Direct contrast:
• In direct contrast we indicate that this is directly the opposite of that.
• It can be shown by the following way.

Subordinate Conjunctions: whereas and while

Ex: While Ali is rich, Laila is poor.
Whereas Pakistan is hot, Afghanistan is cold.

Indirect contrast:
•It is used to indicate an indirect contrast between main clause
and adverb clause.
•Moreover, it shows an unexpected result.
•It can be shown by the following way.

Subordinate Conjunctions: Although, Even though and Though

Ex: Although I didn’t study, I passed the test.
Even though she told the truth, no one believed her.

Reduction of Adverb Clause into Adverb or Modifying Phrase

An Adverb Phrase is the reduction of Adverb Clause which modifies the
subject of Main Clause. 251
 Key points:
•The subject of Adverb Clause and the Main Clause should be the
same.
•After the reduction the subject of main clause is responsible for all
the actions.
•Reduction is possible if these markers are used such as after,
before, since, when, while and because.
•“After, before and since” are used in both clause and phrase.
•“When” is changed into “upon or on” in Adverb Phrase.
•“While” is optional in Adverb Phrase.
•“Because” is deleted in Adverb Phrase.
•Sometimes reduction is possible even if the subjects of Adverb
Clause and Main Clauses are different.
Note: If the subjects are different and reduction is made, it is called
Dangling, Hanging, Unattached and Irreverent Modifier and we avoid
using Dangling Modifier.

Ex: While driving, a dog came in front of her car.

252
How to reduce Adverb Clause into Adverb Phrase or
Modifying phrase

Key points:
• Delete the subject of Adverb Clause.
• Delete all the forms of to be verbs if used in Adverb Clause.
• Change the active main verb into its (ing) form.
• No change will occur in a passive main verb.
• Use Having + verb3 that is called perfect participle for
changing perfect tenses.
• If only (is, am, are) are used in adverb clause change them
into being.

Ex: Before he went to school, he ate breakfast.

Before going to school, he ate breakfast.

253
Since she came here, she has met many friends.
Since coming here, she has met many friends.
Ali went to Kabul after he had finished his university.
Ali went to Kabul after having finished his university.

While the teacher was teaching, he explained the lessons well.

While teaching, he explained the lessons well.
We will go to Afghanistan when we finish our work.
We will go to Afghanistan upon finishing our work.

Because I am sick, I can not go to the classes.

Being sick, I can not go to the classes.
After Ali failed the test, he didn’t study hard.
After failing the test, he didn’t study hard.

She left her room after she was beaten.

She left her room after beaten.
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Noun Clause
A subject + verb structure that functions the same as a noun in a
sentence is called Noun Clause.
Or: A group of words containing a subject and a verb and
functioning the same as a noun is called Noun Clause.

Key points:
•It is also called Nominal Clause.
•It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions.
•That: It is used for positive and negative statements.
•If/whether: They are used for yes/no questions.
•W.H words: They are used for W.H questions.
•It is not used in interrogative structures.
•Inversion is not allowed in noun clause.
•Positive to do auxiliary verbs are not used in noun clause.
•Note: Noun Clause is used when we want to give more detailed or
exclamatory sentence.
Structures: Marker + subject + verb + Comp
Marker + verb + Comp 255
Cases of Noun Clause

As a subject of a verb:
Ex: His story was boring.
Subject
What he has written was boring.
Noun clause

As the object of a verb:

Ex: I don’t like your story.
Object
I don’t like what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

As the object of a preposition:

Ex: She is tired of your story.
Pre object
She is tired of what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause 256
As the Complement of Be:
Ex: This is your story.
Be Complement
This is what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

As the objective of Complement:

Ex: I told Ali the story.
Obj Complement
I told Ali what you have written.
Main clause Noun clause

As the adjectival Complement:

Ex: She is happy that I came back.
It is important that you did not cheat.
Appositive case:
Ex: The reason, why she left the center, is not clear.
The questions, that I asked yesterday, were not answered.
257