Signal Encoding Techniques

What is difference between information &

signal ?
• Information :Information is the content of the message signal
• Signal: It is the actual entity that is transmitted from transmitter to
receiver

• Digital waves:

• Analog waves
Signal Encoding Techniques
• Both analog and digital information (data) can be encoded as
either analog or digital signals.
• The particular encoding that is chosen depends on the
transmission media and communications facilities available.
• If the transmission media is baseband(use lowpass channel) then it is
used to transmit digital signals, which supports for TDM(time division
multiplexing)
• If the transmission media is broadband(use bandpass channel) then it is
used to transmit analog signals, which supports for FDM(frequency
division multiplexing)
Signal conversion
There are four possible conversions of data to signals as listed below :

1. Digital data, digital signals

2. Analog data, digital signals
3. Digital data, analog signals
4. Analog data, analog signals
Digital signalling
• A data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into
a digital signal x(t).
• The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique and is
chosen to optimize use of the transmission medium.

CODEC (Encoder & decoder): Digital signalling

It is a device acts as encoder at the sender side used to send analog or digital data g(t)
in the form of digital signals x(t) through the transmission medium and acts as
decoder at the receiver side i.e., digital signals are decoded to the data g(t ) which is
in the form sent by the sender.
Analog signalling
• It is a continuous constant-frequency signal known as the carrier
signal.
• Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation.

Modulation:
It is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency
All modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three
fundamental frequency fc domain parameters: amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the modulating
signal.
The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal s(t).
 Digital Data to Digital Signals
• The data may be in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio,
or video
• The data are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits (0s or 1s).
• Line-coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital-signal.
• At the sender, digital-data is encoded into a digital-signal
• At the receiver, digital-signal is decoded into a digital-data.
• Line-coding is the process of converting digital-data to digital-
signals.
Data Element Vs Signal Element
Key Transmission Terms
Three factors that determine how successful the receiver will be in
interpreting the incoming signal are:
signal-to-noise ratio(SNR)
data rate
bandwidth.

• An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate.

• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER) ,If SNR is
decreasing
• An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate.
 Ways of evaluating/comparing various techniques
Signal spectrum
• A lack of high-frequency components means that less bandwidth is
required for transmission.
• In addition, lack of a direct-current (dc) component is also
desirable.

Clocking
• There is need to determine the beginning and end of each bit
position.
• To provide some synchronization mechanism that is based on the
transmitted signal is achieved with suitable encoding
Error detection
• It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated code
to detect some of or all the errors that occurred during transmission.
• Some encoding schemes that we will discuss have this capability to some extent.

Signal interference and noise immunity

• Certain codes exhibit superior performance in the presence of noise.
Performance is usually expressed in terms of a BER.

Cost and complexity

• The higher the signalling rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost.
• A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one.
• For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult to interpret
than one that uses only two levels.
Line Encoding Mechanisms
(a) Unipolar Scheme
• All signal levels are either above or below the time axis.
• NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
The positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0
(Figure).
It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to 0 at the middle of
the bit.
(b) Polar Schemes
• The voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.
• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages (V).
• For example: -Ve for bit 1 +Ve for bit 0.

(i) Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)

(ii) The Return to Zero (RZ)
(i) Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)

We use 2 levels of voltage amplitude.

Two versions of polar NRZ (Figure 4.6):
1. NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)
• The level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
• For example: i) Voltage-level for 0 can be positive and
ii) Voltage-level for 1 can be negative.
2. NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)
• The change or lack of change in the level of the voltage determines the
value of the bit.
• If there is no change, the bit is 0;
• If there is a change, the bit is 1.
• The main limitations of NRZ signals are the presence of a dc
component and the lack of synchronization capability.

• With a long string of 1s or 0s for NRZ-L or a long string of 0s for NRZI,

the output is a constant voltage (dc component) over a long period of
time. These circumstances, will result in loss of synchronization.

• Voltage level is constant during the bit interval for NRZ-l or NRZ-I.

• Receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when next bit is
started incase of – clock not synchronized
(ii) The Return to Zero (RZ):
• In NRZ encoding, problem occurs when the sender-clock and
receiver-clock are not synchronized.
• Solution: Use return-to-zero (RZ) scheme (Figure 4.7).
• RZ scheme uses 3 voltages: positive, negative, and zero.
• There is always a transition at the middle of the bit. Either
i) from high to zero (for 1) or
ii) from low to zero (for 0)
(c) Biphase: Manchester & Differential
Manchester
(i) Manchester Encoding

• This is a combination of NRZ-L & RZ schemes (RZ-> transition at the middle of the bit).
• There is always a transition at the middle of the bit. Either
• from high to low (for 0) or
• from low to high (for 1).
• It uses only two voltage levels (Figure 4.8).
• The duration of the bit is divided into 2 halves.
• The voltage
→ remains at one level during the first half &
→ moves to the other level in the second half.
The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.
• (ii) Differential Manchester
• This is a combination of NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
• There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit-values
are determined at the beginning of the bit
• If the next bit is 0, there is a transition. If the next bit is 1, there is none
• Modulation rate of Manchester and differential Manchester is twice
that for NRZ; (as 2 signal elements are required to send 1 data
element),this means that the bandwidth required is
correspondingly greater.

Advantages:
• Synchronization: Because there is a predictable transition during
each bit time, the receiver can synchronize on that transition. For this
reason, the biphase codes are known as self-clocking codes.
• No dc component: Biphase codes have no dc component, yielding
the benefits described earlier.
• Error detection: The absence of an expected transition can be used
to detect errors. Noise on the line would have to invert both the signal
before and after the expected transition to cause an undetected error.
(d) Bipolar Schemes (or Multilevel Binary)
• This coding scheme uses 3 voltage levels (Figure 4.9):
i) positive
ii) negative &
iii) zero.

• Two variations of bipolar encoding:

i) AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
ii) Pseudoternary
• (i) AMI
• Binary 0 is represented by a neutral 0 voltage (AMI ->Alternate 1
Inversion).
• Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.

(ii) Pseudoternary
• Binary 1 is represented by a neutral 0 voltage.
• Binary 0s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
• The bipolar AMI scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ.
The bipolar AMI scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ, but there
is no DC component.
• For a long sequence of 1s, the voltage level alternates between
positive and negative; it is not constant. Therefore, there is no DC
component.
• For a long sequence of 0s, the voltage remains constant, but its
amplitude is zero, which is the same as having no DC component. In
other words, a sequence that creates a constant zero voltage does
not have a DC component.
• AMI is commonly used for long-distance communication, but it has
a synchronization problem when a long sequence of 0s is
present in the data. Scrambling technique can solve this problem.
(e) Scrambling techniques
• Sequences that would result in a constant voltage (here zero) level on
the line are replaced by filling sequences that will provide sufficient
transitions to maintain synchronization.
• The filling sequence must be recognized by the receiver and replaced
with the original data sequence.
• The filling sequence is the same length as the original sequence, so
there is no data rate penalty.
• The design goals for this approach can be summarized as follows:
• No dc component
• No long sequences of zero-level line signals
• No reduction in data rate
• Two techniques are commonly used in long-distance transmission services;
• B8ZS and
• HDB3

1. Bipolar 8-zeros substitution (B8ZS):

• The coding scheme is based on a bipolar-AMI.
• We have seen that the drawback of the AMI code is that a long string of zeros may result
in loss of synchronization.
To overcome this problem, the encoding is amended with the following rules:

Case-1: Positive(last known voltage)

If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding this octet was positive,
then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+ -0- +
Case-2: Negative(last known voltage)
If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding this octet was negative,
then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000- +0+ -.
• This technique forces two code violations (signal patterns not allowed
in AMI) of the AMI code, an event unlikely to be caused by noise or
other transmission impairment.
• The receiver recognizes the pattern and interprets the octet as
consisting of all zeros.
Example of B8ZS:
2. HDB3
• A coding scheme that is commonly used in Europe and Japan is
known as the high-density bipolar-3 zeros (HDB3) code.
• As before, it is based on the use of AMI encoding. In this case, the
scheme replaces strings of four zeros with sequences containing one
or two pulses.
• In each case, the fourth zero is replaced with a code violation.
(1) Whether the number of non-zero pulses (1’s) since the last
violation is even or odd and
(2) The polarity of the last pulse before the occurrence of the four
zeros.
Table 5.4 shows that this condition is tested for by determining

Case 1: Odd +ve

000+
Case 2: Odd -ve
000-
Case 3: Even +ve
-00-
Case 4: Even -ve
+00+
Example for HDB3
Modulation Rate
• When signal-encoding techniques are used, a distinction needs to be
made between data rate (expressed in bits per second) and
modulation rate (expressed in baud).
• The data rate, or bit rate, is R. The modulation rate is the rate at which
signal elements are generated.
Digital Data to Analog Signals
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital
data. i.e., Modulation involves operation on one or more of the three
characteristics of a carrier signal:

• Amplitude,
• Frequency, and
• Phase
• there are three basic encoding or modulation techniques for
transforming digital data into analog signals, as illustrated in Figure
below:
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK),
• Frequency shift keying (FSK),
• Phase shift keying (PSK)
• Digital devices are attached to the network via a modem (modulator-
demodulator), which converts digital data to analog signals, and vice versa.
• In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that combines
changing both the amplitude and phase, called quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM).
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
1) Data-element vs. Signal-element
• A data-element is the smallest piece of information to be exchanged i.e.
the bit.
• A signal-element is the smallest unit of a signal that is transmitted.
2) Data Rate vs. Signal Rate
• Data rate (Bit rate) is the number of bits per second.
• Signal-rate (Baud rate) is the number of signal elements per second.
• The relationship between data-rate(N) and the signal-rate(S) is

where r = number of data-elements carried in one signal-element.

where L = type of signal-element (not the level)

(In transportation,
→ a baud is analogous to a vehicle, and
→ a bit is analogous to a passenger.
We need to maximize the number of people per car to reduce the traffic).
3) Carrier Signal
• The sender produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base for the
information-signal.
• This base-signal is called the carrier-signal (or carrier-frequency).
• The receiver is tuned to the frequency of the carrier-signal that it expects
from the sender.
• Then, digital-information changes the carrier-signal by modifying its
attributes (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is
called modulation (shift keying)
• 4) Bandwidth
• In both ASK & PSK, the bandwidth required for data transmission is
proportional to the signal-rate.
• In FSK, the bandwidth required is the difference between the two
carrier-frequencies.
• Example:
1.

2.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
• In ASK, the two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of the
carrier frequency.
• Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero; that is, one binary digit is represented by
the presence, at constant amplitude, of the carrier, the other by the absence of the
carrier.
• The resulting transmitted signal for one-bit time is

where
The carrier signal is A cos(2πfct),
A: Amplitude of carrier signal
fc :Carrier frequency
(a) Binary ASK (BASK):
• ASK is normally implemented using only two levels.
• This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying
(OOK).
• The amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier frequency.
• Implementation of BASK
• Here, line coding method used = unipolar NRZ (Figure 5.4).
• The unipolar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier-frequency coming
from an oscillator.
• 1) When amplitude of the NRZ signal = 0, amplitude of the
carrier-signal = 0.
• 2) When amplitude of the NRZ signal = 1, the amplitude of the
carrier-signal is held.

Circuit
produces
alternating
waveform
 (b) Multilevel ASK
• The above discussion uses only two amplitude levels.
• We can have multilevel ASK in which there are more than two levels.
• We can use 4, 8, 16, or more different amplitudes for the signal and modulate
the data using 2, 3, 4, or more bits at a time.
• In these cases, r = 2, r = 3, r =4, and so on.
• But ASK is susceptible to sudden gain changes (leads to distortion) and is a
rather inefficient modulation technique so generally multi-level ASK is not
used.
• Bandwidth for ASK
• Here, the bandwidth (B) is proportional to the signal-rate (S).
• The bandwidth is given by

where d(0<d<1)= this factor depends on modulation and filtering-process.

Frequency Shift Keying
 Binary FSK (BFSK)
 The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK), in which the two binary values are
represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency, say two frequencies f1
and f2.
 f1 if the data element is 0;

 f2 if the data element is 1.

 The resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is-

• Where,
• f1 and f2 are typically offset from the carrier frequency
• fc by equal but opposite amounts.
• In the below example fc is taken as 3Hz, f1=4Hz, f2=2Hz which are
offset by 1Hz from carrier frequency.

Freq controlled
by a voltage
input
 Multilevel FSK
 Multilevel modulation (MFSK) use more than two frequencies.
 For example, we can use four different frequencies f1, f2, f3 and f4 to send 2
bits at a time.
 To send 3 bits at a time, we can use eight frequencies. And so on.
 In this case each signalling element represents more than one bit. The
transmitted MFSK signal for one signal element time can be defined as
follows:
Bandwidth for BFSK
• FSK has two ASK signals, each with its own carrier-frequency f1 or
f2.

• The bandwidth is given by

where 2Δf is the difference between f1 and f2,

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.

 The simplest scheme uses two phases to represent the two binary digits
and is known as binary phase shift keying or Two-Level PSK
 The resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is—

 In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two
or more different signal elements.
 Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase
changes.
• Here we have only two signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and
the other with a phase of 180°.
Binary PSK
 It is as simple as binary ASK with one big advantage-PSK is less
susceptible to noise.
 If we have a bit stream, and we define d (t) as the discrete function
that takes value 1 if the corresponding bit in the bit stream is 1 and the
value of d(t) is -1 if the corresponding bit in the bit stream is 0, i.e.,
d(t)=1 when bit is 1,d(t)=-1 if bit is 0.
 we can define the transmitted signal
Implementation
 The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK. (Figure 5.10).
 The signal-element with phase 180° can be seen as the complement of the
signal-element with phase 0°.
 Here, line coding method used: polar NRZ.
 The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier-frequency coming from an
oscillator.

1) When data-element = 1, the phase starts at 0°.

2) When data-element = 0, the phase starts at 180°.

Differential PSK (DPSK):
 An alternative form of two-level PSK is differential PSK (DPSK).

 In this scheme,
 Binary 0 is represented by sending a signal of the same phase as the
previous signal sent.
 Binary 1 is represented by sending a signal of opposite phase to the
preceding one.
• This term differential refers to the fact that the phase shift is with reference to the
previous bit transmitted rather than to some constant reference signal
Four-Level PSK (or) QPSK:

 More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved if each signalling element

represents more than one bit.

 For example, instead of a phase shift of 180˚, as allowed in BPSK, a common

encoding technique, known as quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), uses phase
shifts separated by multiples of π/2 (90˚), where each signal element represents
two bits rather than one.
Implementation:

 The input is a stream of binary digits with a data rate of R = 1/Tb, where Tb is
the width of each bit.

 This stream is converted into two separate bit streams of R/2 bps each, by
taking alternate bits for the two streams.

 The two data streams are referred to as the I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature
phase) streams.

 The streams are modulated on a carrier of frequency fc by multiplying the bit

stream by the carrier, and the carrier shifted by 90˚.
• Figure below shows the QPSK modulation scheme in general terms.

 Thus, the combined signals have a symbol rate that is half the input bit rate.

 The use of multiple levels can be extended beyond taking bits two at a time.

• It is possible to transmit bits three at a time using eight different phase angles
with phase shift 45degrees
• QPSK and OQPSK Modulators

• Example: Data = 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 separated into two parts as

• In-Phase part = 1 1 0 1 0 0 --> I(t) = 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1

• Quadrature phase= 0 1 0 1 0 1 --> Q(t) = -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 )

• For QPSK there are chances to get phase shift of 180 degrees instead of 90
degrees, so OQPSK is introduced.

• The difference is that a delay of one bit time is introduced in the Q stream
for OQPSK to maintain phase shift of 90 degrees.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

• Popular analog signalling technique that is a combination of ASK and PSK.

• QAM uses two copies of the carrier frequency, one shifted by 90˚ with respect to
the other.
• In the diagram, the upper stream is ASK modulated on a carrier of
frequency fc by multiplying the bit stream by the carrier.

• Thus, a binary zero is represented by the absence of the carrier wave and
a binary one is represented by the presence of the carrier wave at a
constant amplitude.

• This same carrier wave is shifted by 90˚(-ve) and used for ASK
modulation of the lower binary stream.

• The two modulated signals are then added together and transmitted.

• The transmitted signal can be expressed as follows:

ANALOG DATA TO DIGITAL SIGNALS

• A process of converting analog data into digital data is

known as digitization.
• The device used for converting analog data into digital form
for transmission at sender, and subsequently recovering the
original analog data from the digital at receiver, is known as a
codec (coder-decoder)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital

data (digitization) is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 A PCM encoder has three processes, as shown in Figure

1) Sampling
2) Quantization &
3) Encoding.
Sampling
The first step in PCM is sampling.
The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the
sample interval or period.
• The Inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling
rate or sampling frequency
Three sampling methods
(1) Ideal Sampling
 Pulses from Analog signal will be sampled. This method is difficult to
implement.
 output is simply the replication of the original signal at discrete intervals

(2) Natural Sampling

 A high-speed switch is turned ON for only the small period of time when the
sampling occurs.
 The result is a sequence of samples that retains the shape of the analog-signal.

 Not compatible with a digital system since the amplitude of each sample has
3) Flat Top Sampling
 The most common sampling method is sample and hold.
 Sample and hold method creates flat-top samples.
 This method is sometimes referred to as PAM (pulse amplitude modulation).
• The most common sampling method, called sample and hold, create flat-
top samples by using a circuit.

Sampling Rate
• According to the Nyquist theorem, to reproduce the original analog signal,
one necessary condition is that the sampling rate be at least twice the
highest frequency in the original signal
Quantization
• We assume that the original analog-signal has amplitudes between
Vmin & Vmax.

• We divide the range into L zones, each of height Δ(delta).

where L = number of levels.

• 3) We assign quantized values of 0 to (L-1) to the midpoint of each

zone.

• 4) We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized

values.
For example: Let Vmin=-20 Vmax =+20 V L = 8 Therefore, Δ = [+20-(-20)]/8= 5

1) First row is normalized-PAM-value for each sample.

2) Second row is normalized-quantized-value for each sample.

3) Third row is normalized error (which is diff. b/w normalized PAM

value & quantized values).

4) Fourth row is quantization code for each sample.

5) Fifth row is the encoded words (which are the final products of the
conversion).
 example, assume that we have a sampled signal and the sample amplitudes are between -
20 and +20 V. We decide to have eight levels (L = 8). This means that D=5 V. Figure 4.26
shows this example.
 The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15, +15 to +20
 The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
 Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value of the midpoint.
 Each zone is then assigned a binary code.

 The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the number of bits per sample as it is
commonly referred to, is obtained as follows:

nb = log2 L

 Given our example, nb = 3

 The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
Quantization Error

 One important issue is the error created in the quantization process.

Quantization is an approximation process.
 The input values to the quantizer are the real values; the output values
are the approximated values.
 The output values are chosen to be the middle value in the zone. If the
input value is also at the middle of the zone, there is no quantization
error; otherwise, there is an error
Uniform versus Nonuniform Quantization
 For many applications, the distribution of the instantaneous amplitudes in
the analog signal is not uniform.
 Changes in amplitude often occur more frequently in the lower amplitudes
than in the higher ones.
 The signal is companded i.e., at the sender before conversion it is
compressed; it is expanded at the receiver after conversion.
 Companding means reducing (compressing) the instantaneous voltage
amplitude for large values; expanding is the opposite process.
Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM
 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per
sample x the sampling rate

Bit rate = nb x fs
The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on the type of line
encoding used
Encoding
 The quantized values are encoded as n-bit code word.
 In the previous example,
 A quantized value 2 is encoded as 010.
 A quantized value 5 is encoded as 101.
 Relationship between number of quantization-levels (L) & number of
bits (n) is given by
 The bit-rate is given by:
Delta Modulation

 PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been

developed to reduce the complexity of PCM.
 The simplest is delta modulation.

 PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM
finds the change from the previous sample
Figure shows the process. Note that there are no code words
here; bits are sent one after another.
Modulator
 The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog
signal.
 The process records the small positive or negative changes, called delta O. If the
delta is positive, the process records a 1; if it is negative, the process records a O.
 However, the process needs a base against which the analog signal is compared.
 The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.

 Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the input signal with the
gradually made staircase signal
Figure shows a diagram of the process.
 Delta demodulation components
 The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker
and the delay unit, creates the analog signal.
 The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass
filter for smoothing.
 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
 Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation
of analog information by an analog signal.
 Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM) and
 Phase Modulation (PM)
 Amplitude Modulation
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies
with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal (Signal which carries
data).
 The bandwidth requirement is low when compared to FM and PM as frequency
is not changed in the carrier signal .
 Generally Bandwidth of AM signal is two times the bandwidth of the modulating
signal.
• The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the
amplitude changes to follow variations in the information as shown in
below fig.
Frequency Modulation
 In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to
follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as
the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly i.e., when amplitude of information signal
is high the frequency of the carrier signal is high and vice versa.
 The bandwidth requirement for frequency modulation(FM) is higher than
AM and PM. The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from
the bandwidth of modulating signal BPM = 2(1 + β)B.

Where  = 4 most often.

• Figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier
signal, and the resultant FM signal
Phase Modulation
 In PM transmission, the frequency along with phase of the carrier signal
is modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the
modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude of the carrier signal remain constant, the frequency
is high at the starting and ending of the signal and phase of the signal
also changes as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the
carrier changes correspondingly.
 The bandwidth required is more compared to Amplitude modulation as
different frequencies are also used in Phase modulation.
• The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the
bandwidth of modulating signal BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  = 2most often
Thank You