UNIT - I

WATER TECHNOLOGY
 COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To familiarize the water quality criteria and
interpret its significance in water purification.
 To identify various boiler troubles and its
treatment techniques.
 COURSE OUTCOMES
 At the end of the course, the students will be able:
 Analyze the quality of water from quality parameter

data and propose suitable treatment methodologies to

treat water.
 Explain the various boiler problems and water

treatment techniques.
 WATER
INTRODUCTION
• Water is the most important compound for the
existence of human beings, animals and plants.
• Water covers 75% of the earths surface. Out of
this 96% is present in the form of oceans and
seas. The remaining exist in the form of ground
water, snow and rivers.
• Water is the only known substance exists as a
gas, liquid and solid within a small range of air
temperature and pressure.
• Water is often referred to as universal
solvent because many substances
dissolve in it.

• Although water is nature’s most

wonderful, abundant and useful
compound, yet it is also the most
misused one.
 WATER TECHNOLOGY

The process of removing all types of

impurities from water and making it fit
for domestic (or) industrial purpose is
called water technology or water
treatment.
 SOURCES OF WATER
 There are two main sources of water.
1.Surface Water:
i) Rain water
ii) River water
iii) Lake water
iv) Sea water
2. Underground Water:
i) Spring Water
ii) Well Water
 TYPES OF IMPURITIES IN WATER

(i)Physical impurities:
(a) Suspended impurities: sand , oil droplets,

vegetable and animal matters cause

turbidity in water.
(b) Colloidal impurities: finely divided silica,
clay and organic waste products
impart colour, turbity and odour to water.
(ii) Chemical impurities:
(a) Dissolved salts: bicarbonates, sulphates
and chlorides of Ca and Mg cause
hardness in water. Carbonates, bicarbonates
and chlorides of Na and K make water
alkaline.
(b) Dissolved gases: O2, CO2, H2S, SO2,
NO2 etc., make water acidic
(iii) Biological impurities: Fungi, bacteria etc.,
spread diseases
WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS
 Quality – important parameter used to decide
application or treatment required
 Quality varies place to place
 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF

QUALITY OF WATER
o Colour
o Odours
o Turbidity
o pH
o Alkalinity
o TDS
o Fluoride
o Arsenic
o COD
o BOD
o Hardness of water
 Colour : shade imparted by organic or
inorganic material, which change the
appearance of the water
 Found in surface water
 Colour range from pale straw through

yellowish-brown to dark brown.

 Due to presence of dissolved or colloidal

organic or inorganic materials

Sources :

1. Organic sources – Algae, tannins, humic

compounds, organic dyes etc.
Colour of water
2. Inorganic sources – Fe & Mn compounds,
chemicals & inorganic dyes from various
industries.
 Significance :

1. The colours and the materials which produce

colour are objectionable in which the water &
manufactured product come into contact.
E.g : Dyeing, laundering
2. Affects aquatic plants
3. Variation in colour of water from same source
with time serves as index of quality of water.
 E.g: a) Yellowish tinge : presence of “Cr” &
organic matter
b) Yellowish red : presence of Fe
c) Red-brown : presence of peaty matter.
 Removal of colour :
 Removed by coagulation, settling, adsorption &

filtration.
Odours :
Odour : Smell or scent caused by one or more

volatilized chemical compounds that are found in

low concentration
Sources :
1. Organic sources: Algae and decaying
vegetation,etc.
2. Inorganic sources : Mercaptans, amines &
sulphides etc.
 The odour in chlorinated water- chloro-

organic compounds formed by the reaction

between chlorine & organic matter in water
 How to evaluate the odour?
Significance:
 Disagreeable odours are objectionable for
various industrial process – food products,
beverages, textile etc.
 Odours in natural water are organic in nature
 Exposure to odour could result in health

effects ranging from mild to severe health

problems.
Removal of odour:
 Organic – Aeration & activated carbon

treatment
 Inorganic – due to H2S or Fe – removed by

chemical method – oxidation, chlorination or

precipitation.
Turbidity:
 Reduction of clarity of natural water –

presence of finely divided, insoluble

impurities suspended in water.
Sources :
1. Inorganic sources: Clay, slit, silica, CaCO 3,
Fe(OH)2 etc.
2. Organic sources : Finely divided vegetable or
animal matter, oils, fats, micro-organisms
 Problems caused by turbidity:
 In boiler water & cooling water system
 Affects water –softening process
 Efficiency of Disinfection gets reduced.
 Significance:
 Affects taste and odour of drinking water
 Affects disinfection process
 Has negative effects on aquatic life
 Increases water temperature
 Removal of Turbidity:
 Removed by sedimentation followed by

i) Coagulation and filtering

ii) Coagulation and settling
iii) Coagulation, settling & filtering.
 pH :
 The hydrogen ion concentration is

represented by the pH value

 
 pH= -log10 [ H ]
 pH value ranges from 0-14

 pH of natural water lies in the neutral

 Drinking water pH = 6.5 -8.5
 For irrigation pH = 6.0 – 9.0
 Surface water – rich in Na & K – Alkaline pH
 Rain water – Acidic pH
Significance of pH:
 Affects the biological availability
 Rise or fall in pH indicates chemical pollution

or acid rain
Alkalinity:
 Measure of acid neutralising ability
 Natural alkalinity – hydroxides, carbonates

and bicarbonates
Sources:
 Hydroxides of carbonates & bicarbonates of

alkali metals, borates, silicates, phosphates -

 Industries like fertilizers, detergent, leather &
paint
Significance:
 Alkalinity – harmful to aquatic organisms
 Alkalinity in boiler feed water – caustic

embrittlement
Removal of alkalinity :
 by adding HCl
 TDS :
 TDS – Total dissolved solids
 Measure of all organic & inorganic substance in

water
Significance:
 Impacts salinity of water
 Not ideal for health, must be filtered before

intake
 TDS >300ppm – not potable –taste salty
 TDS > 1200ppm – impacts colour, odour and

taste
 Very high level of TDS – excessive scaling
Fluoride :
 Found in ground water as a result of dissolution

from geologic formations.

 Surface water – smaller concentration of
fluoride.
Sources:
 Fluoride containing minerals – Fluorapatite

(Ca10F2(PO4)6), cryolite (Na3AlF6) & igneous

rocks
 Contaminated domestic sewage, run off from

agricultural lands – phosphate fertilizers

Significance :

1. Optimum fluoride concentration – range – 0.7

– 1.2 mg/l
2. Optimum fluoride level – beneficial health
effects.
3. Low fluoride concentration – dental caries in
children
4. High fluoride concentration – causes
fluorosis
 Removal:
 Precipitation – Aluminium salts in alkaline

media
 Strongly basic anion exchange resin
 Adsorption on activated carbon.
 Arsenic:
 Metallic element – forms number of poisonous
compounds.
 In nature – low level – compounds with O, Cl, & S.
 Sources:
 Can get into drinking water from natural deposits
 Runoff from agriculture, mining & industries.
 Significance:
 Long-term intake – arsenic poisoning with cancer

of skin, bladder, kidney.

 Association of As – diabetes, hypertension &

reproductive disorders
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
 “The measure of amount of oxygen required to

chemically oxidise all the oxidisable impurities

present in the sewage using an oxidising agent like
acidified K2Cr2O7”
 Significance :
 Determination of COD – carried out in 3 hrs
 Determination of BOD – carried out after 5 days
 Measures both biologically oxidisable & inert

organic matter
 COD test – monitor water treatment plant efficiency
 Measure pollutants in water, waste water &
hazardous waste
 Provides an index to assess the effect of

discharged waste water

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
 “The amount of free oxygen required by

bacteria for the biological oxidation of the O

organic matter under aerobic condition at 20 C

for a period of 5 days
Significance:
 Indicates the amount of organic matter in sewage
 Enables to determine the degree of pollution
 <3ppm of BOD – better quality of water
 >4ppm – polluted water.
Hardness of water:
 It is the characteristic property of water that

prevents lathering of soap.

Types of hardness:
 Depending on types of dissolved salts in

water, hardness is classified into two types

1.Temporary hardness
2.Permanent hardness
 1)Temporary hardness or Carbonate hardness or
Alkaline hardness :
This hardness is due to the presence of

bicarbonates of Ca and Mg and can be removed

i) by boiling the water. ii) by adding lime to the
water.
Ca ( HCO3 ) 2   CaCO3   H 2O  CO2 
Mg ( HCO3 ) 2   Mg (OH ) 2   2CO2 

Mg ( HCO3 ) 2  2Ca (OH ) 2  Mg (OH ) 2   2CaCO3   2 H 2O

2) Permanent hardness or Non-carbonate hardness or
Non-Alkaline hardness:
This hardness is due to the presence of chlorides

and sulphates of Ca and Mg. It can not be removed

by simple boiling.
They need special methods like

i) zeolite process
ii) ion exchange process
iii) Lime soda process
Significance:
Affects the amount of soap that is needed to

produce lather.
 Important for industrial uses –formation of
scale
 Mitigates metal toxicity
TREATMENT OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC
SUPPLY (OR) MUNICIPAL WATER
TREATMENT
 Rivers & lakes are most common source of
water

 Watershould be free from colloidal impurities,

domestic sewages, industrial effluents and
disease producing bacteria
 STAGES IN THE WATER PURIFICATION
PROCESS
SOURCES OF WATER SCREENING AERATION

FILTRATION COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION

STERILISATION
(OR)
DISINFECTION
A ) PRIMARY TREATMENT
1. Screening :
 Removing floating materials like leaves, wood

pieces, etc from water.

 Raw water passed through screens – retains the

floating material
2. Aeration :
 Process of mixing water with air
 The main purpose

i) to remove gases & other volatile impurities

ii) to remove ferrous & manganous salts as
insoluble ferric & manganic salt
3. Sedimentation :
 Process of removing suspended impurities –

allowing the water to stand undisturbed for 2-6

hrs in a big tank
 Suspended impurities settle down – due to force

of gravity, & are removed

 Removes 75% of suspended impurities

4. Coagulation :
 Finely divided clay , silica etc do not settle

easily – hence cannot be removed by

sedimentation.
 Removed by coagulation
 Coagulants –Alum , Al2(SO4)2
 Al2(SO4)2 added to water, gets hydrolysed to form

Al(OH)3
 Al(OH)3 traps finely divided & colloidal

impurities – settles at the bottom – removed easily

5. Filtration :
 Process of removing bacteria, colour, taste, odour

& suspended particles – by passing the water

through filter beds – fine sand ,coarse sand &
gravel
Sand Filter
 Sand filter – tank containing thick top layer of
fine sand – followed by coarse sand –fine gravel
& coarse gravel
 Water passes through the filtering medium, it

flows through different beds slowly.

 The rate of filtration decreases slowly – clogging

of impurities in the pores

 When filtration becomes very slow – top layer is

replaced
 Bacteria are also removed by this process
B) Sterilisation (or) Disinfection :
 The process of destroying harmful bacteria.
 The chemical used for this process are called disinfectants.

1.By using ozone :

 Ozone - powerful disinfectant

- readily absorbed by water

- highly unstable
- breaks to give nascent oxygen

O 3 O +
2 [O]

 Nascent oxygen - powerful oxidising agent

- kills the bacteria
Disadvantages:
a) Process is costly, cannot be used in large scale.
b) Ozone is unstable, cannot be stored for long time
2. By using ultraviolet radiations :
 UV rays are produced by passing electric current

through mercury vapour lamp

 Useful for sterilising water in swimming pool

Disadvantages:
a) Costly
b) Turbid water cannot be treated
3. By Chlorination :
 Process of adding chlorine to water
 Chlorination can be done by following methods

a) By adding chlorine gas:

 Chlorine gas is bubbled in water – good

disinfectant
b) By adding chloramine :
 Chlorine & ammonia mixed in ratio 2:1 –

chloramine is formed
 Cl2 + NH ClNH2 + HCl
3
Chloramine
 Chloramine compounds decompose slowly to
give chlorine
 Better disinfectant than chlorine

c) By adding bleaching powder :

 Bleaching powder with water – hypochlorous

acid (HOCl) – powerful germicide

CaOCl 2 + H2 O Ca(OH)2 + Cl 2
Bleaching powder
Cl2 + H2 O HCl + HOCl
Hypochlorous acid
HOCl + Bacteria Bacteria is killed
Break point chlorination :
 Water contains the following impurities

i) Bacteria
ii) organic impurities
iii) Reducing substances
iv) Free ammonia
 Chlorine may be added to water directly as gas or as

bleaching powder.
 Graph shows the relationship between amount of

chlorine added to water & the residual chlorine

 Stage 1: The applied chlorine kills the bacteria,

oxidises all the reducing substances & there is no free

residual chlorine
 Stage 2 : As the amount of applied chlorine
increases, the amount of residual chlorine also
increases – due to formation of chloramine & other
chloro compounds
 Stage 3: Further chlorination – oxidation of

chloramine & other impurities starts – fall in the

combined chlorine content.
 Break point chlorination is the point at which the

combined residual chlorine decreases to a

minimum point where oxidation of chloramine
and other impurities complete & free residual
chlorine begins to appear
 DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER

 The process of removing common

salt from the water is known as
desalination.
 Water containing higher
concentrations of dissolved salts is
called as brackish water.
 Depending on the quantity of
dissolved solids water can be graded
as:
 Depending upon the quantity
of dissolved solids, water is
graded as
Fresh water -
Fresh water
Contains <1000 ppm of
dissolved solids.
Brackish water -
Contains >1000
but <35,000 ppm of
dissolved solids. Brackish water
Sea water -
Contains >35,000 ppm of
dissolved solids
 Sea water and brackish water

can be made as drinking

Sea water
water by reverse osmosis.
 REVERSE OSMOSIS(RO)
 When two solutions of different concentrations are
separated by a semi permeable membrane solvent
(water) flows from lower concentration side to higher
concentration side. This process is called osmosis .
 The driving force in this phenomenon is osmotic

pressure
 If excess to osmotic pressure is applied on the higher

concentration side, the solvent moves flow is reversed

i.e., solvent flows from higher concentration to lower
concentration. This process is called reverse osmosis.
 Pure water is seperated from salt water
 Membranes used in RO: cellulose acetate,

cellulose butyrate , polyacrylonitrile (PAN) etc.,

Advantages of Reverse Osmosis:
1.The life of the membrane is high ,and it can be
replaced with in few minutes.
2.It removes ionic, non ionic and colloidal
impurities.
3.Due to low capital cost, simplicity this process
is used for converting sea water into drinking
water.
 BOILER FEED WATER
 Boiler: It is a closed device which is used to produce
steam by heating water in industries.
 The water fed into the boiler for the generation of

steam is called boiler feed water.

 The steam produced in boilers is used for various

purposes like power generation, sterilization, space

heating and drying.
Essential Requirements of Boiler Feed Water:
i) Boiler feed water should be free from hardness. It
leads to scale and sludge formation..
ii) Boiler feed water should be free from dissolved
gases like O2 and CO2. It leads to boiler corrosion.
iii) Boiler feed water should be free from
suspended impurities. It produces wet steam.
iv) Boiler feed water should be free from alkalinity.
It produces caustic embrittlement.
v) Boiler feed water should be free from oil and
turbidity. It produces priming and foaming.
vi) Boiler feed water should be free from dissolved
salts. It produces priming and foaming and
caustic embrittlement.
 BOILER TROUBLES
(Disadvantages of using Hard water in Boilers)
 When water without any pretreatment is directly
fed into the boilers, various physical and chemical
reactions in boiler water takes place due to the
action of heat. This results in the following
problems which are called Boiler Troubles.
i) Scale & Sludge
ii) Priming & Foaming
iii) Caustic embrittlement
iv) Boiler Corrosion
BOILER TROUBLES
 1. SCALE AND SLUDGE
 Ifwater is boiled, the concentration of
dissolved salts in water increases.
 When the concentration of dissolved salts

reaches their saturation point, they are thrown

out in the form of precipitates.
 This precipitation may be in the form of hard

deposit (scale) or loose slimy deposit (sludge).

SCALE AND SLUDGE
Scales :
 These are hard deposits which stick to the inner
walls of the boilers and are difficult to remove.

 The impurities responsible for the formation of

scales are Ca(HCO3)2 , Mg(HCO3)2, CaSO4 etc.,

Sludges :
 Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed in the

colder parts of the boiler.

 The impurities responsible for the formation of

sludges are MgCO3, MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2 etc.,
 Sludge Scale
Definition  Loose, slimy and non-  Hard, thick and adherent
adherent deposit. coating.
Causes  Due to salts like MgSO4,  Due to salts like CaSO4 ,
MgCl2 and CaCl2 Ca(HCO3)2
Disadvanta  It decreases the boiler  It decreases the boiler
ges efficiency to lesser extent. efficiency.
 Cause chocking in the  Reduces fuel economy.
pipelines.  Causes boiler explosion.

Prevention  By using soft water.  By using acids like dil.HCl

 By “blow down” operation.  By external treatment and
 The process of periodical internal treatment.
replacement of concentrated  By applying thermal shocks
hard water by fresh water is scrappers and wire brushes.
known as “blow down”
method.
Blow Down Operation :
 It is a process of removing a portion of

concentrated water by fresh water frequently from

the boiler.

Disadvantages Of Scale Formation :

1.Wastage of fuel
2. Decrease in boiler efficiency
3. Boiler explosion
Prevention of scale formation :
 At initial stage – scale is removed using scraper,

wire brush etc.

 If scales are brittle – removed by thermal shocks
 Using suitable chemicals – dil.acids, EDTA – forms

suitable complexes
 If scales are loosely adhering – removed by blow

down operation.
 PRIMING AND FOAMING :
 During production of steam – due to rapid boiling,

some droplets of liquid water are carried along with

steam
 Steam with droplets of liquid water – wet steam
 Droplets carry some dissolved salts & suspended

impurities. This phenomenon is called carry over.

 It occurs due to priming &foaming

Priming:
 Production of wet steam.

Causes:
i)High steam velocity.
ii) High water level
iii) Sudden boiling
iv) Poor boiler design
Prevention:
i) Controlling the velocity of steam
ii) Maintaining the water level
iii) Using treated water
iv) Good boiler design
Foaming :
 Formation of stable bubbles above the surface of the

water
 Bubbles are carried over by steam leading to

excessive priming
Causes:
i) Presence of oil & grease
ii) Finely divided particles
Prevention :
i) Coagulants – sodium aluminate, aluminium
hydroxide
ii) Anti-foaming agents – synthetic polyamides.
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT
 Intercrystalline cracking of boiler material
 Boiler water – contains a small proportion of Na CO3
2
 In high pressure boilers Na CO 3 undergoes
2
decomposition to give NaOH.
 Na2 CO3 + H2 O NaOH + CO 2
 NaOH flows into minute crevices & hair cracks by

capillary action & dissolves iron as sodium ferrate.

Fe + 2NaOH Na FeO
2
+2H 2
 This causes brittlement of boiler parts – bends,

joints etc. –failure of boiler

Prevention :
i) Using sodium phosphate as softening agent
ii) Adding tannin, lignin – blocks the hair cracks
Boiler Corrosion
 Corrosion in boilers is due to the presence
i) Dissolved oxygen
ii) Dissolved carbon dioxide
iii) Dissolved salts
i) Dissolved Oxygen :
 It is mainly responsible for corrosion of boiler.
 Dissolved oxygen in water attacks boiler material at

high temperature
4Fe + 6H2 O + 3O2 4Fe(OH) 3
Removal of dissolved oxygen:
 Removed by a) Chemical method

b) Mechanical method
a) Chemical method :
 Sodium sulphite, hydrazine are some chemicals used.

Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2 SO4

N2 H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2 O
 Hydrazine is an ideal compound for removing DO

b) Mechanical method :
 DO can also be removed by mechanical de-aeration
 Water is allowed to fall freely on the perforated

plates placed inside the tower.

 The sides of the tower is heated and a vaccum pump

is also attached to it
 The high temperature and low pressure produced
inside the tower reduce the DO in water
ii) Dissolved Carbon dioxide :
 Dissolved carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic

acid –acidic & corrosive in nature.

CO2 + H2 O H2CO3
 CO2 is also produced from decomposition of

bicarbonate salt present in water

Removal of dissolved carbon dioxide :
a) By adding calculated amount of NH4OH in water
2NH4OH + CO2 (NH4)2CO3 +H2O
b) Removed mechanically by de-aeration method
iii) Dissolved Salts :
 Acids, produced from salts dissolved in water are
also responsible for corrosion.
 Salts like MgCl2,CaCl2 etc undergo hydrolysis to

give HCl –corrodes boiler

MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 +HCl
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2 + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Removal of acids :
 By neutralisation

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2O

 SOFTENING OF HARD WATER
 The water used for industrial purpose should be free of
hardness producing substances, suspended impurities
and dissolved gases etc.

 The process of removing hardness producing salts from

water is known as softening or conditioning of water.

 Softening of water can be done in two methods

i) External Treatment or Conditioning
ii)Internal Treatment or Conditioning
 EXTERNAL TREATMENT
 Itinvolves the removal of hardness producing
salts from the water before feeding into the
boiler. It can be done by two processes.

1. Zeolite process
2. Demineralization or Ion-exchange process
 ZEOLITE PROCESS
 Zeolite: Naturally occuring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate

 General formula : Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O(x=2-10,y=2-6)

 Synthetic zeolite is known as Permutit (porous, gel like

struture. Used for water softening)

 Synthetic Zeolite=Na2Ze
 The Na+ ions of zeolite are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
present in the water during softening process.
ZEOLITE PROCESS
 WORKING PROCESS
 When hard water is passed through a bed of sodium
zeolite (Na2Ze) kept in a cylinder, it exchanges
sodium ions with Ca2+ and Mg 2+ ions present in the
water to form Ca and Mg zeolites.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2Ze → CaZe + 2NaHCO3
Mg(HCO3)2 + Na2Ze → MgZe + 2NaHCO3
CaSO4 + Na2Ze → CaZe + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + Na2Ze → MgZe + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2Ze → CaZe + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2Ze → MgZe + 2NaCl
 REGENERATION OF ZEOLITE

Zeolite is completely converted into calcium and

magnesium zeolite and gets exhausted. The exhausted
zeolite is regenerated by treating it with 10% solution
of NaCl.
CaZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + MgCl2
 ADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE PROCESS

i. Water obtained by this process will have hardness of

only 1-2 ppm.
ii. Cheap as regenerated zeolite can be used again.
iii. No sludge is formed during this process.
iv. Equipment is compact and occupies only a small
space.
v. Operation is easy
 DISADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE
PROCESS
i. Turbid water cannot be treated as it blocks the pores of the
zeolite bed
ii. Acidic water cannot be used as it decomposes the structure of
zeolite.
iii. Softened water contains more sodium salts like
NaHCO3,Na2CO3 etc. When such water is boiled in boilers
CO2 and NaOH is produced resulting in boiler corrosion and
caustic embrittlement.
iv. Water containing Fe,Mn cannot be treated as regeneration is
difficult.
v. Cannot be used for softening brackish water as brackish water
contains Na+ ions. So ion exchange reaction will not occur.
 ION EXCHANGE OR
DEMINERALISATION PROCESS
 This process removes almost all the ions (both
anions and cations) present in hard water.
 Soft water produced by zeolite process does

not contain hardness producing Ca 2+ and Mg2+

ions but it contains ions like Na+, K+,SO42-,Cl-
 But demineralised water does not contain both

anions and cations.

 Thus soft water is not DM water but DM

water is soft water.

 DM is process carried out using ion exchange resins,
which are long chained, cross linked, insoluble organic
polymers with microporous structure.
 Cation exchange resins:
 They contain acidic functional groups (R-COOH, R-

SO3H). They are capable of exchanging H+ ions with

cations of hard water. They are represented as RH2.
 Eg: 1.Sulphonated coal 2. sulphonated polystyrene.
 Anion exchange resins:

 They contain basic groups (R-NH , R-OH).

2
 They are capable of exchanging OH- with anions of hard
water. They are represented as R(OH) 2.
 Eg: 1.Urea formaldehyde resin
2.Cross linked quaternary ammonium salts
 PROCESS
Water first is passed through the cation exchange resin, which
absorbs all cations from hard water
RH2 + CaCl2 → RCa + 2HCl
RH2 + MgSO4 → RMg + 2H2SO4
RH + NaCl → RNa + HCl
 Cation free water passes through the anion exchange column,

which absorbs anions Cl-, SO42- and HCO3- present in water

R’(OH) 2 + 2HCl → R’Cl2 + 2H2O
R’(OH) 2 + H2SO4 → R’SO4 + 2H2O
The water coming out from anion exchanger is completely free
of cations and anions and is known as demineralised or
deionised water.
 REGENERATION OF RESINS
Cationic Exchange Resins can be regenerated by
passing dilute HCl or H2SO4 .
RCa + 2HCl → RH2 + CaCl2
RNa + HCl → RH + NaCl

Anion Exchange Resins can be regenerated by passing

dilute NaOH
RCl2 + 2NaOH → R’(OH) 2 + NaCl
RSO4 + 2NaOH → R’(OH) 2 + Na2SO4
Advantages of Ion Exchange Process:
 Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process
 The water obtained by this process will have low hardness
(nearly 2 ppm)

Disadvantages of Ion Exchange Process:

 Water containing turbidity cannot be treated by this method
 Water containing Fe and Mn cannot be treated by this method,
because they form stable compounds with the resins.
 The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are
needed.
 INTERNAL CONDITIONING
 The residual salts that are not removed by external
methods can be removed by adding some chemicals
directly into the boiler water. This method is known as
‘Internal treatment’. These chemicals are known as
‘Boiler compounds’.

 Eg. Phosphate conditioning, Calgon conditioning

Colloidal conditioning, Sodium aluminate
conditioning
i) Phosphate conditioning
 Scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium
phosphate to the boiler water.
 Used for in high pressure boilers.
The phosphate reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ to give soft

sludges of calcium and magnesium phosphates which

can be removed by blow down operation.
by blow down operation.
ii) Calgon conditioning
 Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate
Na2 [ Na4 (PO3)6].
 With Ca2+ ions it forms a soluble complex and prevents
scale and sludge formation.

 This method is better than phosphate conditioning

because it converts scale forming substances into soluble
complex Na2 [Ca2(PO3)6] but phosphate conditioning
produces sludges which requires blow down operation.
iii) Colloidal Conditioning
 Scale formation can be reduced by adding
colloidal conditioning agents like kerosene,
agar-agar, gelatin, tannin etc.
 It is used in low pressure boilers
 These colloidal substances get coated over the

scale forming particles and convert them into

non-adherent loose precipitates, which can be
removed by blow down operation.
iv) Sodium aluminate conditioning:
• When sodium aluminate is added to boiler water,
it undergoes hydrolysis to give precipitates of
aluminium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O → Al(OH)3 ↓ + NaOH

• The NaOH precipitates Mg2+ as Mg(OH)2.

MgCl2 + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + 2NaCl

• The Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 entraps the silica

particles and settle down.
This can be removed by blow down
operation.
Detection of hardness