TOPIC 3: HARDWARE

The CPU & Microprocessor

1
What is the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer?

• A computer system consists of hardware and software

• The main hardware components of a computer system are input devices,
the central processing unit, primary memory, secondary storage and
output devices
• Examples of input devices - keyboard, mouse, game controller, sensors,
microphone and webcam
• Examples of output devices - monitor, phone screen, speakers, printer, and
motors
• Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device, the
central processing unit (CPU) processes data by executing instructions and
the results are outputted to an output device
2
Illustration:
A diagram showing the input, process,
output sequence followed by computer
systems

3
• Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results
being outputted

Step Example
Input  A keyboard is used to input a number
Process  If the instruction being executed is ADD, the
inputted value is added to an existing value
Output  The result of the calculation is outputted to the user
via the monitor
4
What is a microprocessor?

• A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

• An integrated circuit is a small electronic circuit made up of transistors,
capacitors, resistors and other electronic components
• The integrated circuit contains a central processor designed to perform
arithmetic and logic operations, which include adding, subtracting,
transferring numbers from one memory location to another, and comparing
two numbers
• The single chip also contains input/output interfaces, and memory
• Microprocessors are a compact way of processing data and can be used in a
wide range of electronic devices, including general-purpose computer
system and Embedded system
5
Von Neumann Architecture

• John Von Neumann developed the concept of the stored program

computer in the 1940s
• The Von Neumann computer architecture which most modern day
computers use, is based upon this concept
• The key feature of the stored program concept, and Von Neumann
architecture, is data and instructions are stored in the same memory ( RAM )
as binary
• Another feature of Von Neumann architecture is a central processing unit
(CPU) fetches instructions from memory and executes them one at a time
(serially)
• The CPU then stores the results back into memory

6
Components of the Central
Processing Unit

7
• The main purpose of the CPU is to execute instructions and process data
• The CPU has two main components - the Control Unit (CU) and the
Arithmetic Logic Unit ALU)
• The Control Unit controls the flow of data around the CPU
• The Control Unit also sends control signals to the different components instructing
them what to do e.g. read, write, add, subtract
• The Control Unit decodes instructions (into an opcode and operand )
• The Control Unit controls the timings of operations (the clock speed)
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) performs the calculations required to execute the
instructions, these include ADD and SUBTRACT
• The ALU also carries out logical operations such as COMPARE
• The ALU has a built-in register where it stores interim results of calculations
• After calculations, the ALU sends data to the MDR
8
• The CPU also contains a number of registers which are small memory
locations within the CPU, which temporarily store data needed to
execute an instruction
• Special purpose registers have specific roles to play in the execution
of an instruction

9
 Special purpose
Definition
register
Program Counter (PC)  stores the address of the next instruction to
be fetched from memory
Memory Address  stores the address of the instruction or data
Registers (MAR) to be fetched from or written to memory
Memory Data Register  stores the data that has been fetched from
(MDR) memory or being written to memory
 Data from MDR is sent to ALU to be executed
Current Instruction  stores the instruction the CPU is currently
Register (CIR) decoding or executing
Accumulator  Temporarily stores the results of the
calculations performed by the arithmetic and
logic unit

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example

Qn.
What are the characteristics of Von Neumann
architecture?
• Both data and instructions are stored in the same
memory unit [1]
• Single Arithmetic and Logic Unit [1]
• Single Control Unit [1]
• Uses the FDE cycle to execute instructions serially [1]

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Buses

• Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by
buses. These are wires down which electronic signals and data travel. The
different buses are collectively called the system bus
• The system bus is made up of three different buses - the data bus, the
control bus and the address bus
• The data bus transmits data from the CPU to memory or input/output controllers.
It is bidirectional which means data can travel in both directions
• The address bus transfers addresses from the CPU to memory. It is unidirectional
which mean addresses only go from the CPU to memory
• The control bus transfers control signals from the control unit to other
components in the computer system such as memory or input/output controllers.
The control bus is bidirectional
12
A diagram showing how the different buses
connect the components in a computer system

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The Fetch, Decode, Execute
cycle
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes instructions by performing
the Fetch Decode Execute cycle
• The CPU fetches an instruction from memory
• The instruction is then decoded ( by the Control Unit) into an opcode and an
operand
• The instruction is executed and the whole cycle is repeated with the next
instruction in the process

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15
 Step
Detailed Explanation
Fetch

 The memory address of the instruction to be fetched is stored in

the Memory Address Register and is sent down the address bus.
 The data/instruction at the memory address is transferred back to the
CPU, via the data bus, where it is stored in the Memory Data Register
 The instruction is copied into the Current Instruction Register and the
Program Counter increments

 The instruction in the Current Instruction Register is decoded, by the

Decode Control unit , into an opcode and an operand

Execute
 The instruction is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the
opcode is performed upon the operand.
 The result is stored in the accumulator or written to a memory location
within memory 16
Worked example

Explain how an instruction is fetched using Von Neumann architecture

• The Program Counter (PC) holds address/location of the next
instruction to be fetched [1]
• The address held in PC is sent to Memory Address Register (MAR)
[1]
• The memory address is sent using address bus [1]
• The Program Counter is incremented [1]
• The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the
Memory Data Register (MDR) [1]
• The instruction is transferred using the data bus [1]
• The instruction is sent to Current Instruction register (CIR) [1]
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CPU Performance

• Central Processing Units can have multiple cores

• A dual-core processor has two cores
• A quad-core processor has four cores
• Each core runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently from
one another and at the same time (simultaneously) meaning parallel
processing can take place
• Multiple cores enables multitasking (running more than one program at the
same time)
• Some programs cannot be split between cores
• The more cores a computer has the more instructions that can be executed
per second resulting in better performance

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• Each core has a clock speed
• The clock speed is how many instructions the core can execute each second
• The clock speed is measured in Hertz
• Modern cores can execute billions of instructions per second
• A gigahertz (GHz) is a billion instructions per second
• A megahertz (MHz) is a million instructions per second
• A CPU core with a clock speed of 3.4GHz can execute 3.4 billion instructions
per second

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• Cache is a small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU
with very fast read/write speeds
•
• It is used for storing frequently used instructions/data, recently used instructions,
and instructions that are to be fetched and executed next in a process.
• The impact of increasing the amount of cache is that more data can be stored
there and accessed faster than if it was in RAM …which improves the
performance of the CPU.
• Double the number of cores does not necessarily mean double the
number of instructions executed a second. The cores might have different
clock speeds and cache sizes

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example

One computer has a single core processor and the other has a dual
core processor. Explain why having a dual core processor might
improve the performance of the computer
• The computer with the dual core processor has two
cores/double the amount of cores [1]
• Parallel processing can take place [1]
• Each core can execute a separate instruction at the
same time [1]
• Each core can process instructions independently of
each other [1]
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Instruction Sets

• An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed

by a CPU
• Each command has a unique binary code
• The table below shows an example instruction set. Each instruction
has a mnemonic that indicates what the instruction does alongside a
corresponding binary code

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 Instruction Set
ADD 10100001
SUB (subtract) 00100010
LDA (load) 10111111
STR (store) 01100000
BRA (branch) 01011010

 After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an

operand, the CPU finds the opcode in the processor’s
instruction set. It then knows what operation to
perform when executing the instruction
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Embedded Systems

• Embedded Systems
• An embedded system is a computer systems with a either one function or
limited specific functions built within a larger mechanical device
• Its purpose is to control the device and allow a user to interact with it
• It runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals
• An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer system like a
laptop or desktop computer which can be used to perform many different tasks
• The vast majority of microprocessors manufactured are for use as embedded
systems
• Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of an
integrated circuit with built in memory
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 Type of
Description
embedded system
Integrated circuit containing a CPU
Microcontrollers and memory (RAM or ROM) built in
to the same chip
Integrated circuit containing only a
CPU on the chip
Microprocessor
RAM , ROM , peripherals need to be
added
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• The microprocessor used in an embedded system is often custom designed
• Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the
system which cannot be reprogrammed by the user. The software may be
able to be updated e.g. GPS software in a car navigation system
• Embedded systems usually have some form of analog or digital input
• The microprocessor used in an embedded system is often custom designed
• Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the
system which cannot be reprogrammed by the user. The software may be
able to be updated e.g. GPS software in a car navigation system
• Embedded systems usually have some form of analog or digital input
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Diagram of an embedded system

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 Embedded system
Possible input devices Possible Output
Buttons to set the Screen showing the time
Digital clock
time/mode/alarm Alarm
Pedestrian button
Traffic Lights Timer Lights
Movement sensor
Lighting system Movement sensor Lights
Keypad to enter alarm code
Security system Camera Alarm
Movement sensor
Actuator controlling movement
Vending machine Keypad to make choice
of choice
Central Heating Keypad to set temperature
Heat
system Temperature sensor

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• There are many advantages of embedded systems
• low power consumption
• small physical size
• low cost to manufacturer
• they can be controlled remotely
• can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly

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example

Describe how an embedded system controls a washing machine

• The user selects the wash cycle they require using a

keypad [1]
• The microprocessor will process the inputs and begin to
heat the water and move the drum to begin the wash.
The actuator controlling the drum and the heating
mechanism are the output devices [1]
• Sensors will monitor the water level and temperature
[1]
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Input Devices

• Every computer system receives commands and data, from the real
world, via input devices
• Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed
• For conventional computer systems, such as desktop computers and
laptops, the most common input devices are the mouse and the
keyboard
• There are a wide range of input devices used in more specialist
computer systems such as scanners and sensors

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Barcode Scanner

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• Barcodes are a series of black and white bars which represent a code
• A barcode reader shines a red laser at the barcode to read the data it represents
• The light from the white lines is reflected back
• Black lines absorb the light so less is reflected
• The different levels of reflection are converted into a binary value which can be
processed by a microprocessor
• A barcode reader can be handheld or built into a larger machine such as a self-service
checkout at a supermarket
• Barcodes can be used in many ways such as identifying a product being sold or tracking
a package through the delivery process
• Benefits include faster checkouts, automated stock control, less chance of error due to
manual entry of data, and more detailed tracking information
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Example

How are barcodes used in supermarkets to manage stock control?

• When a customer purchases an item, its barcode is
scanned in at the checkout [1]
• The barcode reader sends the digital code for the
product to the stock database where it is removed from
the stock inventory [1]
• This means the number of items of stock is always
accurate and up to date [1]
• and the supermarket staff can reorder items quickly
when stock is low [1]
34
Digital Camera

• A digital camera works by capturing light and converting it into a digital image
• Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an image sensor where it is
split into millions of pixels (small squares). Each pixel measures light intensity
which is converted into binary and represents a colour.
• Digital cameras are integrated into smartphones , used in security systems and
by professional photographers to create high quality digital images
• An advantage of digital cameras is they show a preview of the image
• They also instantly create an image which can then be easily duplicated and
transmitted via bluetooth or WiFi
• Software can be used to edit digital photos, for example applying a filter or
retouching a photo
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Keyboard

• A keyboard is the most common device used for text-based data

input
• They are connected either by a USB cable or wirelessly to the
computer system
• They are built into laptops.
• Smartphones and tablets have virtual keyboards
• Each key on a keyboard has a peg underneath it which makes contact
with a conducting membrane. This is then converted into an electrical
signal to transmit a unique character code

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Microphone

• A computer microphone works by converting sound waves into

electrical signals that can be processed by the computer.
• They can capture any real world sound and convert it into digital data
which can be stored, duplicated or modified
• The microphone has a diaphragm that vibrates in response to sound
waves. These vibrations are then converted into electrical signals by a
coil of wire attached to the back of the diaphragm. Changes in the signal
are recorded by a microprocessor using a analogue to digital converter
• Microphones are used to record music, telephone calls, communicate
online and dictation

37
Optical Mouse

• A mouse use a laser to detect and track movement, this is then

processed by a microprocessor which interprets the movement and
replicates it when moving a virtual cursor on-screen
• Items can be selected or moved using the left mouse button, whilst the
right button usually displays additional menus
• They can be wired or wireless
• They are used to control the cursor in a Graphical User Interface (GUIs)
• They are simple to use and provide the user with an intuitive way to
navigate the computer
• They are reliable due to no moving parts
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QR code scanner

39
• A QR code is a visual representation of data using black and white
squares
• QR codes can represent over 7000 digits whereas a barcode represents
up to 30 digits
• QR codes are scanned by a camera (often on a mobile device)
• A piece of software convert the squares into binary data
• QR codes often link to a website where more information can be found
• They can also be used to advertise products, share contact details,
provide promotional codes, train tickets, and event tickets

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example

Describe how festival organisers could make use of QR codes and QR

code scanners [4]
• Festival e-tickets could be in the form of a QR code [1]
• QR scanners could scan them on entry to the festival [1]
• QR codes could be used to advertise the festival [1]
• QR codes could be used to link to the festival website
[1]
• QR codes could be used to provide information during
the festival [1]

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Touchscreen

• A touchscreen can be classed as both an input device and an output

device

Types of touch screen

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 Type
How it works Benefits/Drawbacks Uses
Resistive screen Resistive screens consist of two + Cheap to produce.
conductive layers. The top layer + Resistant to surface
is flexible. When the screen is Used in cash machines,
contaminants
touched the two layer connect, information kiosks, medical
completing a circuit + Can be activated with nearly equipment
every object (stylus, finger,
gloved hand)
Infra-red screens LEDs shine infrared light across a + Excellent image quality,
screen forming a matrix. When + high precision
the screen is touched the beams
are interrupted + durable
Tablets, laptops,
+ allows for multiple touches at smartphones
the same time
- Requires a bare finger or stylus
for activation
Capacitive Made up of a protective layer, a +Excellent image quality
screens transparent conductive layer Large scale commercial
+Unlimited touch-life displays
and a glass substrate. Touching
the screen changes the +Scale well Information kiosks
electrostatic field of the - Sensitive to interference from
conductive layer Medical equipment
light, water, snow

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2D and 3D scanners

• A two-dimensional (or flat-bed) scanner shines a strip of light over a document. Reflected light is
measured for each pixel. This data is converted into binary data so the document can be digitally
recreated
• A three- dimensional laser scanner shines a light over an object. The geometry and dimensions are
recorded so the object can be recreated digitally
• The digital 3D model can be modified using specialist software
• A 3D printer could then print out the model
• 2D scanners can be used for creating digital versions of documents or photographs
• Reading passports at airports
• 3D scanners can be used to create 3D models for use with computer-aided design (CAD) software
• Creating replicas with 3D printers
• Typical uses of 3D scanners and printers are dentistry, product development, medical
• A cheap and quick way of creating a digital representation of both 2D and 3D objects so they can be
manipulated, stored, transmitted or copied
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Summary of input device uses
and benefits

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 Device Example Uses Benefits
Barcode scanner Faster checkout, less errors, detailed stock/tracking
Checkouts, parcel delivery
information
QR code scanner Can hold more information than a barcode
Advertising products, linking to websites, e-tickets Can be scanned using a camera on a mobile device
(smartphone)
2D and 3D scanners Converts 2D and 3D objects into digital data which
Scan documents, photos and objects is easier and quicker to transmit/duplicate or
manipulate
Digital camera Smartphones, professional photography, security
Instant preview and image
systems
Keyboard Entering text Universal, easy to use
Mouse Navigating a GUI
Intuitive
Making selections and entering commands
Microphone Recording real-world sound
Musical recordings
Telephone calls
Dictation
Touchscreen Entering text and commands on mobile devices
(tablet, smartphone) Can be durable
Cash machines Good image quality
Interactive advertisements Intuitive/easy to use
Information screens
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Output Devices

• An output device shows the results of the processing in a way

humans can understand
• In a general purpose computer system, the main output device is the
monitor/screen
• Other output devices include projectors, printers, speakers and
actuators

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Actuators

• Actuators are used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy

(electrical, air, hydraulic) into real-world movement of a physical object.
• They come in a variety of sizes and have been made specifically for a
particular function.
• Examples of use include turning a wheel, opening or closing a door,
controlling a conveyer belt, operating machinery, moving robotic arms,
vibrating a machine, starting or stopping a pump, opening or closing a
valve
• They are often used with sensors. The input of the sensor is checked
against stored values. If the input is within a certain range an actuator is
used to provide movement of a physical object
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Worked example

A theme park has a game where a player has to run from the start to the finish
without getting wet. The system for the game uses sensors and a microprocessor to
spray water at a player as they run past each sensor
Describe how the sensors and the microprocessor are used in this system

• Motion sensors are used to detect the player’s movement [1]

• The sensor sends data to microprocessor [1]
• Data is compared with stored data [1]
• if value is within range water is sprayed [1]
• signal sent to actuator to spray water [1]
• if value is outside of range no action is taken [1]
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Light projectors

• Used to project computer outputs onto a large screen

• Used to give presentations in both business and education settings
• There are two types - Digital light processing (DLP) projectors and Liquid
crystal display (LCD) projectors.
• DLP systems use millions of micro-mirrors arranged in a grid on a
microprocessor within the projector. Light is shone through colour filters
and the mirrors. The position of the mirrors can be altered to change the
intensity of the light
• LCD projectors use three mirror filters to separate an image into red, green
and blue wavelengths. The three images are then combined to produce the
full colour image which is passed through the lens on to the wall/screen
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 Device
Advantages Disadvantages
Digital light projector
(DLP) Image tends to suffer
Higher contrast ratios. from “shadows” when
Smooth video showing a moving
image

DLP do not have grey

Higher reliability components in the
image
The colour definition is
Smaller and lighter not as good as LCD
projectors
Better suited to dusty atmospheres than LCD projectors
LCD projector
Contrast ratios are not
Give a sharper image than DLP projectors
as good as DLPs

Better colour saturation and intensity than DLP projectors Have a limited life
LCD panels degrade
Use less power and generate less heat
over time.
Quieter running that DLP
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Laser and Inkjet printers

Both printers create hard copies of a digital document

Hard copies are needed when you do not have access to an electronic
device
Inkjet printers:
• Have a print head which moves across the page
• Spray liquid ink droplets from ink cartridges through very fine nozzles
onto the paper (these are in the print head)
• The droplets can be piezoelectric or thermal bubble technology
• Inkjet printers produce high quality hard copies of digital images or
documents
52
Laser printers:
• Are very fast when making multiple copies of a document
• Are useful for high volume print jobs for example producing leaflets
• Have a low running cost per page.
• Are often used in business and education setting
• Have large toner (dry ink) cartridges and large paper trays
• Use positive and negative charges to make the toner particles stick to
piece of paper, heat is then used to bond the particles to the paper

53
3D printers

• 3D printers create 3D models of a digital model by depositing layers

of material, such as plastic or resin, on top of one another to slowly
build up a 3D object
• They allow for precision and can be used in medicine to create
prosthetics and blood vessels
• 3D printers can be used to create rapid prototypes
• Models can be transmitted digitally and then models printed out all
across the world

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Liquid Crystal Display screens

• LCD screens are made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals.

• The display is made of pixels arranged in a matrix
• The display requires backlighting
• They are used for TVs, monitors, tablets and phones
• They have low power consumption and run at a cool temperature
• They do not suffer image burn or flicker issues
• They provide bright images and colours
• They are cheaper to produce than LED screens

55
Worked example

Describe three benefits of LCD screens

• Low power consumption [1]

• Runs at a cool temperature [1]
• Bright image/colours [1]
• Do not suffer Image burn [1]
• Cheaper to purchase than an LED screen [1

56
Light emitting diode (LED)
screen
• An LED screen is made up of tiny LEDs
• They do not need backlighting which makes them thinner and lighter to
hang on the wall
• LED screens are replacing LCD displays in TVs, monitors, laptops and
mobile devices
• They have better image quality and a longer life span
• They can be used to create very large screens that can be used to show
visual content at events such as football matches and music festivals
• They consume very little power making them suitable for being switched
on for many hours in the day
57
Organic light emitting diode
(OLED) screen
• Much thinner and lighter than traditional LCD screens
• Use organic light emitting diodes (OLEDS).
• They use organic carbon compound to create semiconductors
• No form of back lighting is required
• You can have very thin, flexible screens

58
Speakers

• Speakers are used to take digital sounds or recordings and output

them as sound waves which can be heard by humans
• The digital data is changed into a electric current using a digital to
analogue converter (DAC)
• It is then passed through an amplifier to create a current large
enough to drive a loudspeaker
• The loudspeaker converts the current into a sound wave
• Typical uses include listening to music, listening to video sound,
telephone calls and alarms

59
Sensors

• Sensors are input devices

• They measure a physical property of their environment such as light levels,
temperature or movement
• Sensors can be used for monitoring systems and control systems
• A monitoring system tracks the state of a system, it gathers data and may issue
warning messages
• A control system will control the system based upon the input from sensors
• For example, if the water temperature in a fish tank fell below the acceptable level, a
control system would start up a heater. The system will then continue to check the
water temperature readings and when they are within the acceptable range it will
switch off the heater
• This process of the outputs affecting the following set of input values received from the sensors is
called a feedback loop
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 What it measures Typical use
Acoustic Sound levels To detect changes in sound
levels of industrial machinery
To monitor noise pollution
In security system to detect
suspicious sounds
Accelerometer Acceleration rate, tilt, vibration Detecting sudden changes in
vehicle movement and deploy
safety features if needed
In mobile phones to detect
orientation of the device
Flow Rate of gas, liquid or powder Detect changes in the flow
flow through pipes in water system
Gas Presence of a gas e.g. carbon Detect levels of gas in confined
monoxide spaces
Detect gas levels when fixing
gas leaks

61
 Humidity Levels of water vapour Monitor humidity in
greenhouses
Infra-red Detecting motion or a heat Security systems detecting
source intruders who break the beam
Measures heat radiation of
objects - used by emergency
services to detect people
Level Liquid levels Detects levels of petrol in a car
tank
Detect levels of water in a water
tank
Detect a drop in water levels due
to a leak
Light Light levels Automatically switching on lights
when it gets dark (street lights,
headlights)
Magnetic field Presence and strength Anti-lock braking system
Monitoring rotating machinery
such as turbines

62
 Moisture Presence and levels of moisture Monitoring moisture in soil
Monitoring damp in buildings
pH Acidity or alkaline Monitoring soil to ensure
optimum growing conditions
Monitor pHlevels in chemical
processes
Pressure Gas, liquid or physical pressure Monitoring tyre pressure
Monitoring pressure in pipes
during manufacturing process
Proximity Distance Monitoring position of objects in
robotics
Used in safety systems to prevent
objects colliding
Temperature Temperature in Celsius, Used to maintain temperature in
Fahrenheit or Kelvin swimming pools
Used to control temperature in
chemical processes

63
Data storage : Primary Storage

• Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU , it includes RAM,

Cache, and ROM
• The purpose of Random Access Memory (RAM) is to store data,
instructions and software (including parts of the OS) currently in use
• RAM is also called main memory
• RAM has faster read/write speeds than secondary storage
• RAM is volatile which means it is temporary memory and all data will be lost
when the computer is switched off
• The larger the main memory, the more data the computer access quickly,
which can improve the computer's performance
• A standard desktop computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM
64
• The parts of the operating system currently in use will be stored in RAM
• The purpose of cache is to store frequently/recently used instructions
and data
• Cache has faster read/write speeds than RAM
• There are different levels of cache
• Level 1 cache is situated within the CPU
• Level 2 and 3 cache are situated on the motherboard
• If you increase the amount of cache you can store more frequently used data
and increase the performance of your computer
• If you have too much cache it will decrease the data access speeds because the data
requested will take longer to find
• Cache is volatile and all data will be lost when the computer is switched off
65
A diagram showing the parts of
a computer system which are
classed as primary storage

66
• The role of Read-only memory (ROM) is to store the computer’s boot-
up sequence
• The boot-up sequence is a set of instructions the computer executes when
then computer is initially switched on
• This sequence will run a series of checks to ensure all of the system hardware
is working
• It will then load the operating system which will move from secondary
storage to RAM
• ROM is non-volatile which means data will be stored when the
computer is switched off
• ROM is read-only which means data cannot be written to ROM
67
 The difference between ROM
and RAM

RAM ROM
Volatile Non-volatile
Can read and write data to RAM Read-only

68
Secondary Storage

• Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU

• It is used for permanent storage of data
• Secondary storage is non-volatile. This means data is stored even when power
is lost to the device
• Secondary storage is needed as primary storage (such as RAM ) is volatile and
will not retain data when the computer is turned off
• Unlike ROM, secondary storage can be read from and written to. ROM is read
only
• Common examples of secondary storage include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-
state drives (SSDs), external hard drives, USB flash drives, CDs, DVDs, and Blu-
ray discs. These can be used to store data to transfer it to another computer
69
• Data access speeds for secondary storage devices are typically slower
than primary storage (such as RAM)
• Secondary storage devices often have large capacity (can store large
amounts of data)
• Software such as the operating system is saved permanently on
secondary storage. The instructions and data that makes up the
software then moves to RAM when it is in use
• Secondary storage devices can be internal (inside the computer) and
external (outside the computer)

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Diagram showing different internal and
external secondary storage devices

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Comparison of primary and
secondary storage
Primary storage Secondary storage
Volatile / temporary Non-volatile /permanent
RAM and cache can be read from
and written to Secondary storage can be read from
and written to
ROM is read-only
Can be directly accessed by the Cannot be directly accessed by the
CPU CPU
Smaller capacity Larger capacity
Data access speeds faster than Data access speeds slower than
secondary storage primary storage
Stores data and instructions Stores data and instructions

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Magnetic

• Magnetic hard disk drives have been the main type of internal
secondary storage in personal computers for many years however
solid state drives are increasingly popular due to their durability, low
power consumption and high read/write speeds
• A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a
magnetic material
• These are called platters
• Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

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 A diagram showing the structure of a magnetic
hard disk

 Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks

and wedge shaped sectors. Where they intersect is a track sector
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A diagram showing how each platter is divided
by tracks and sectors

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• The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically
around 5400-7200 RPM) using a motor
• A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over
the surface of the disc to the location of the data
• The data is read/written using electromagnets

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Solid State

• Solid State secondary storage is made of transistors that are arranged

in a grid layout
• It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently
control the flow of electrons
• Current flowing is 1, no current is 0 - which is how electrical flow can
represent binary values
• A NAND gate will take in two inputs and produce an output
(1/electrical current) as long as both inputs are not 1

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The truth table truth table for a
NAND gate
InputA InputB Output

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

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 The truth table for a NOR gate
 A NOR gate will produce an output (1) only when both
inputs are 0

Input
InputB Output
A
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

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Optical

• Optical devices include CDs, DVDs and Blu-rays

• Blu-rays have the largest capacity
• CDs have the lowest capacity
• CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
• CD-RW can be written to and read from
• DVD-RW can be written to and read from
• All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
• An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
• In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by creating pits and lands
• The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
• When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the light
scatters and is not reflected back as well. This is captured by a sensor and can be
interpreted as a change in the binary value
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 A diagram showing how data is burnt on to optical
discs to create lands and pits which can then be used

 In CD-RW the chemical composition of the disk is changed

to represent 0s and 1s. This change can be overwritten
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Virtual Memory

• The purpose of RAM is to store current data and program instructions in

use
• The amount of physical RAM available is limited. The average modern
desktop computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM. Some programs
are larger than this
• Virtual memory is part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when
RAM is full
• It prevents the computer system crashing when RAM is full
• Data that needs to be accessed by the CPU directly is switched by the
operating system from virtual memory into RAM and an inactive page from
RAM replaces it in virtual memory. This is called page switching
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A diagram showing page switching between
RAM and virtual memory

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• The table describes the steps that are taken when a program is
opened on a computer

Step Description
1  The memory manager software built into the Operating System
checks to see if there is sufficient space in RAM to move the new
program’s instructions into RAM, so that they can be directly
accessed by the CPU
2  If RAM is full, the memory manager will move out the most
inactive pages of data and put them in virtual memory until
needed
3  The new program instructions are moved into RAM

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Cloud Storage
• Cloud storage is the concept of storing data on remote servers, that can be accessed
via the internet, instead of on a local storage device (such as an SSD or HDD)
• The physical servers, where the data is stored, are owned and managed by a hosting
company
• Cloud storage warehouses often have thousands of servers containing harddrives
• The hosting company provides services such backing up the data, managing access to the data
as well as general security
• The data can be accessed at any time, on any device, as long as there is an internet
connection
• The data is accessible using a web browser or dedicated software that connects to
the cloud storage service
• There is potentially limitless storage, although it does need to be paid for
• Online storage means it is easy to share data and collaborate with others
• If the internet connection is slow/lost the access to your data is affected
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A diagram showing different devices
connecting to remote servers

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Advantages of cloud storage

• Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local

secondary storage device

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 Benefit Explanation
Accessibility  Data can be accessed from anywhere
 Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant
permissions, making it quick to share files and
collaborate with others
 Data can be accessed on any device with an internet
connection
Scalability  Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or
decrease their storage capacity as needed
Reliability  Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to
store and backup data, reducing the risk of data loss due
to hardware failure
Security  Cloud storage providers offer advanced security features,
such as data encryption and multi-factor authentication
multi-factor authentication, to protect user data from
unauthorised access
 There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services
being provided by the cloud storage provider

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• You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices
• One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual
servers
• There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
• If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have problems accessing
their files
• If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
• You have to pay the cloud storage provider
• You may need to commit to an annual subscription
• You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
• Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
• Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does not have
complete control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring any personal and sensitive
data is secure
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Worked example

A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering upgrading their system
to utilise cloud storage.
Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
• You need a constant internet connection [1]
• if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson files
[1]
• if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student
data/take electronic registers [1]
• if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their
work/coursework [1]
• Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]
• but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised
people [1]
• Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]
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Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
• Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]
• The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]
• The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
• Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device
provided there is an internet connection [1]
• So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
• So students would be able to access work from home [1]

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