DATA

COMMUNICATION
18CS46
4TH SEM
 Table of Contents
Module Module Title Page
Number
Number
1 Introduction 1-105
2 Digital Transmission 106-193
3 Bandwidth Utilization 194-381
4 Data Link Control 382-531
5 Wired LANs Ethernet 531-631
MODULE – 1

INTRODUCTION
 DATA
COMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunication-communication at a distance.
Data -information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two
devices via some form of transmission medium such
asa wire cable.
Fundamental characteristics[Effectiveness of DC]:
1. Delivery-correct destination
2. Accuracy-deliver data accurately
3. Timeliness- delivery data in timely manner
4. Jitter-variation in packet arrival time.
Components of a data communication system
• Message- information to be communicated
• Sender- send the data message
• Receiver – receives the message
• Transmission Medium- physical path by which message
travels from sender to receiver.
• Protocol- set of rules govern the data communications
Data Representation
• Text
• Represented as bit pattern (sequence of bits 0s or 1s)
• Different set of bit pattern used to represent symbols or
characters.
• Each set is called code
• Process of representing symbols is called encoding
• Ex: ASCII,UNICODE

• Numbers
• Represented as bit pattern
• Directly converted to binary form

• Audio
• Recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
• Continuous not discrete
Data Representation (Cont.…)
• Video
• Recording or broadcasting of picture or a movie
• Produced as :
• Continuous entity [TV camera]
• Combination of images-discrete entity

• Images
• Represented as bit pattern
• Image is divided into matrix of pixels(smallest element of an image)
• Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern (size and value of pattern
depend on image)
• Ex: black and white dots (chessboard) -1 bit pattern is enough
to represent a pixel, gray scale- 2 bit pattern.
• Several methods to represent colour images : RGB,YCM
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

6
NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device of sending and/or receiving data generated
capable
byother nodes on the network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Networks
 Network Criteria
 Performance
 Measured using:
 Transit time: time taken to travel a message from one
device to another.
 Response time: time elapsed between enquiry and response.
 Depends on following factors:
 Number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Efficiency of software
 Evaluated by 2 networking metrics:
 Throughput (high)
 Delay (small)
 Network Criteria (cont..)
 Reliability
 Measured by
 Frequency of failure.
 Time taken to recover from a network failure.
 Network robustness in a disaster.

 Security
 Protecting data from unauthorized access, damage
and development.
 Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
• Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
 Physical Structures (Cont..)
• Physical Topology:

– Way in which network is laid out physically.

– Two or more links form a topology.
– “ Topology of network is the geometric representation of all links
and linking devices to one another”.

– Basic topologies:
• Mesh
• Star
• Bus and
• Ring
 Mesh Topology

• All devices are connected to each other

• Dedicated point-point link between

all devices

• “n(n-1)” physical channels to link “n”

device.

• • n(n-1)
For „n‟ physical links
nodes
• n(n-1)/2 duplex mode links
Fully connected Mesh
Topology
• Every device have (n-1) I/O ports to
be connected to other (n-1) devices.
 Mesh Topology (cont.. )
Advantages:
Advantages:
1) Congestion reduced: Each connection can carry its own data load.
2) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
3)Security: When a data travels on a dedicated-line, only intended-receiver can see the
data.
4)Easy fault identification & fault isolation: Traffic can be re-routed to avoid problematic
links.

Disadvantages:
5) Difficult installation and reconfiguration.
6) Bulk of wiring occupies more space than available space.
7) Very expensive: hardware required to connect each link is expensive.

practical example: connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office
needs to be connected to every other regional office.
Star Topology
• Point to Point connection
• All the devices are connected to a
central controller called a hub
•Dedicated point-to-point link
between a device & a hub.
•The devices are not directly linked to
one another. Thus, there is no direct
traffic between devices.
•The hub acts as a junction:
• If device-1 wants to send data
to device-2,
• the device-1 sends the data to
the hub,then the hub relays the A star topology connecting four stations
data to the device-2.
Star Topology (cont..)
Advantages:
1)Less expensive: Each device needs only one link & one I/O port to connect
it to any devices.
2)Easy installation & reconfiguration: Nodes can be added/removed w/o
affecting the network.
3) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
4) Easy to detect and troubleshoot fault.
5)Centralized management: The hub manages and controls the whole
network.

Disadvantages:
6) Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole network is
dead.
7) Cable length required is the more compared to bus/ring topologies.
8) Number of nodes in network depends on capacity of hub.

Example: Local area network

Bus Topology
• Multipoint connection
• All the devices are connected to the
single cable called bus (backbone)
• Devices are connected to the bus by
drop-lines and taps.
•A drop-line is a connection running
between the device and the bus (main
cable).
•A tap is a connector that links to the
bus
A bus topology connecting three stations
• Limit on number of taps a bus can
support and distance between
taps-(as
those signal travels along
backbone some energy is transferred
to heat which makes it weaker as it
travels farther)
Bus Topology
Advantages:
1) Easy installation.
2) Cable required is the least compared to mesh/star topologies.
3) Redundancy is eliminated.
4) Costs less (Compared to mesh/star topologies).
5) Mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages:
6) Difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.
7) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
8) A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
9) There is a limit on
i) Cable length
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
5) Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent
from the source.
Ring Topology
•Each device is connected to the
next, forming a ring
• There are only two neighbours for
each device.
•Data travels around the network in
one direction till the destination is
reached.
•Sending and receiving of data takes
place by the help of token.
• Each device has a repeater.
• A repeater
→ receives a signal on transmission-
medium & A ring topology connecting six stations
→ regenerates & passes the signal to
next device.
Ring Topology
Advantages:
1) Easy installation and reconfiguration.
To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections.
3) Fault isolation is simplified.
If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm.
The alarm alerts the network-operator to the problem and its location.
3) Congestion reduced: Because all the traffic flows in only one direction.
Disadvantages:
1) Unidirectional traffic.
2) A fault in the ring/device stops all transmission.
The above 2 drawbacks can be overcome by using dual ring.
3) There is a limit on
i) Cable length &
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
4)Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source
and destination.
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus
networks
 Categories of Networks
Few criteria –size, geographical coverage and ownership to make this distinction

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a
campus

2
1
Local Area Networks
(LANs)
• It is used to connect computers in a single office, building or campus.
• Privately owned network.
•A LAN can be simple or complex.
1) Simple: LAN may contain 2 PCs and a printer.
2) Complex: LAN can extend throughout a company.(extend to audio
and video devices.)
•Each host in a LAN has an address that uniquely defines the host in
the LAN.
•A packet sent by a host to another host carries both source host‟s
and destination host‟s addresses.
Local Area Networks (LANs) (cont…)
• LAN with common cable : packet sent by host
is received by all hosts. Intended host keep the
packet other drop the packet.

• LAN use a smart connecting switch.

•The switch is able to
→ recognize the destination address of the
packet & guide the packet to its destination.
→ reduces the traffic in the LAN
→ allows more than one pair to communicate
with each other at the same time.

Advantages:
1)Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers and hard disks can be shared
by all devices on the network.
2) Expansion: Nowadays, LANs are connected to WANs to create communication at
a
wider level.
Wide Area Networks
(WAN)
• WAN can cover wider geographical area. It can cover cities,
states, countries and even world.
• WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers,
or
modems.
• Normally, WAN is
→ created & run by communication companies (Ex: BSNL, Airtel)
→ leased by an organization that uses it.

Two distinct examples of WANs:

• Point-to-point WAN
• Switched WAN
Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)

Two distinct examples of WANs:

• Point-to-point WAN:A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects
2 communicating devices through a transmission media

• Switched WAN: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
• The switched WAN can be the backbones that connect the Internet.
• A switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point
WANs that are connected by switches
 Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)
Internetwork:
• A network of networks is called an internet. ( inter-network)
• EX: Assume that an organization has two offices, First office is on the east coast
& Second office is on the west coast.
• Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to
communicate with each other.
• To allow communication between employees at different offices, the
management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a ISP and connects
the two LANs.
• When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same
office, the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to
the
destination.
• On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on
the east coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet
reaches the destination.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)
Internetwork:
Internet with several LANs and WANs connected. One of the WANs is a
switched WAN with four switches.
Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)

Switching:
• An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together.

•A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.

• Two types of switched networks are

1) circuit-switched and
2) packet-switched networks.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)

• Circuit switched network:

• A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the two end
systems. The switch can only make it active or inactive.
• Ex: In the figure below the 4 telephones at each side are connected to a switch.
• The switch connects a telephone at one side to a telephone at the other side.
• A high-capacity line can handle 4 voice communications at the same time.
• The capacity of high line can be shared between all pairs of telephones.
• The switch is used for only forwarding.
• Advantage:
• A circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at its full
capacity.
• Disadvantage:
• Most of the time, the network is inefficient because it is working at
partial
capacity.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN) (cont…)
• Packet switched network:
• In a computer network, the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks of
data called packets.
• The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a packet is an
independent entity that can be stored and sent later..
• As shown in Figure below, the 4 computers at each side are connected to a
router.
• A router has a queue that can store and forward the packet.
• The high-capacity line has twice the capacity of the low-capacity line.
• If only 2 computers (one at each site) need to communicate with each other, there
is no waiting for the packets.
• However, if packets arrive at one router when high-capacity line is at its full
capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded.
• Advantages:
• A packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit switched network.
• Disadvantage:
• The packets may encounter some delays.
 THE INTERNET

• The most notable internet(lowercase i) is called

the Internet (uppercase I) and is composed of
thousands of interconnected networks.
• Internet is made up of
1) Backbones
2) Provider networks &
3) Customer networks
4) Backbones
• Backbones are large networks owned by communication companies such as BSNL
and Airtel.
• The backbone networks are connected through switching systems, called peering
points.
5) Provider Networks (smaller network)
• Provider networks use the services of the backbones for a fee.
• Provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider
networks.
6) Customer Networks
• Customer networks actually use the services provided by the Internet.
• Customer networks pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
• The backbones are often reDferraertd ton asf iSnEternBationaslt IuSePsf.
3
• The provider networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs. 1
Accessing the Internet

• The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it.
• However, the user needs to be physically connected to an ISP.
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN.

1) Using Telephone Networks

• Most residences have telephone service, which means they are connected to a
telephone network.
• Most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet.
• Thus, residences can connect to the Internet using a point-to-point WAN.
• This can be done in two ways: Dial-up service and DSL Service
• A) Dial-up service
¤ A modem can be added to the telephone line.
¤ A modem converts data to voice.
¤ The software installed on the computer
→ dials the ISP &
→ imitates making a telephone connection.
Disadvantages:
i) The dial-up service is very slow.
ii) When line is used for Internet
connection.
connection, it cannot be used for voice 3
2
iii) It is only useful for small residences. speed Internet services to
residences
Accessing the Internet (cont..)

B) DSL Service
¤ DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice &
data communication.
¤ Some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to provide
higher speed Internet services to residences.

2) Using Cable Networks

• A residence can be connected to the Internet by using cable service.
• Cable service provides a higher speed connection.
• The speed varies depending on the number of neighbours that use the same
cable.
3) Using Wireless Networks
• A residence can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access
the Internet.
• A residence can be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.
4) Direct Connection to the Internet
• A large organization can itself become a local ISP and be connected to the
Internet.
• The organization
→ leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and
→ connects itself to a regional ISP.
• For example, a large university with several campuses can create an
internetwork and then connect to the Internet.
Internet
History
• Internet has evolved from a private network to a global one in less than 40 years.

Early History
• Before 1960 there were some communication networks such as telegraph and telephone
networks.
• Suitable for constant-rate communication (after a connection was made between
two users, the encoded message(telegraphy) or voice (telephony) could be
exchanged).
• Computer network should be able to handle bursty data (data received at variable
rates at different times)

Birth of packet switched networks:

• The theory of packet switching for bursty traffic was first presented by Leonard
Kleinrock in 1961 at MIT.
• At the same time, two other researchers, Paul Baran at Rand
Institute and Donald Davies at National Physical Laboratory in England,
published some papers about packet-switched networks.
Internet History (cont…)

ARPANET:
• In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone
devices.
• Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one
another.
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defence (DOD)
was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
• In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented
its ideas for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), a small
network of connected computers.
• The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same
manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP).
• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each other. Each IMP had to be able to
communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
• By 1969, ARPANET was a reality.
• Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of
California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the
University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a network.
• the
Software
hosts. called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication 3
between 5
Internet History (cont…)

Birth of the Internet

• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core
ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Project.
• They wanted to link dissimilar networks so that a host on one
network could communicate with a host on another.
• There were many problems to overcome: diverse packet sizes, diverse
interfaces, and diverse transmission rates, as well as differing reliability
requirements.
• Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of a device called a gateway to serve as the
intermediary hardware to transfer data from one network to another.

TCP/IP
• New version of NCP-transmission control protocol (TCP) included concepts such
as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
• In October 1977, an internet consisting of three different networks
(ARPANET, packet radio, and packet satellite) was successfully demonstrated.
Communication between networks was now possible.
• Authorities made a decision to split TCP into two protocols: Transmission
Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP would handle datagram routing while
TCP would be responsible for higher level functions such as segmentation,
reassembly, and error detection. The new combination became known as TCP/IP.
Internet History
(cont…)
MILNET:
In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for military
users and ARPANET for non-military users.

CSNET:
• Creation of CSNET in 1981.
• Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the National Science
Foundation (NSF).
• The network was conceived by universities that were ineligible to join ARPANET due
to an absence of ties to the Department of Defense.
• CSNET was a
• Less expensive network;
• there were no redundant links and
• the transmission rate was slower.
• By the mid-1980s, most U.S. universities with computer science departments
were part of CSNET.
Internet History (cont…)

NSFNET
• With the success of CSNET, the NSF in 1986 sponsored the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected five
supercomputer centres located throughout the United States.
• Community networks were allowed access to this backbone, a T-1 line with a
1.544-
Mbps data rate, thus providing connectivity throughout the United States.
• In 1990, ARPANET was officially retired and replaced by NSFNET. In 1995,
NSFNETreverted back to its original concept of a research network.
ANSNET

• In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of
supporting the rapidly increasing Internet traffic.
• Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon, filled the void by forming
a non- profit organization called Advanced Network & Services (ANS) to
build a new, high-speed Internet backbone called Advanced Network Services
Network (ANSNET).