The Endocrine

System

Dr Deepakkumar S (1 MPCL – A) 1
It Covers,
• Endocrine system
• Pituitary
• Pineal
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal eglands
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Hypothalamus

• Endocrine influences on behaviour

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: IN BRIEF
• The endocrine system is made up of the
endocrine glands that secrete hormones
• Although there are eight major endocrine glands
scattered throughout the body, they are still
considered to be one system because they have
similar functions, similar mechanisms of
influence, and many important interrelationships
• Some glands also have non-endocrine regions
that have functions other than hormone secretion
• For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that
secretes digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that
secretes hormones
• The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce
the ova and sperm
• Some organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart,
produce hormones, but their primary function is not hormone
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secretion
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 Glands
• Exocrine – Release chemicals/ enzymes into ducts (tube or
pathway) which carry them to their targets or surface of skin.
– sweat, tears, saliva, milk

• Endocrine – Ductless. Release hormones directly into the

circulatory system (travels through blood) until it
reaches the target and exerts its effects
– Only organs whose primary function is hormone release are referred
to as endocrine glands.
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 INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARE
HORMONES?
• Hormones are your body's chemical messengers.
• They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs.
• They work slowly, over time, and affect many different
processes, including:
• Growth and development
• Metabolism - how your body gets energy from the foods you eat
• Sexual function
• Reproduction
• Mood
• Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells,
make hormones.
• The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal,
thyroid, thymus, adrenal glands, and pancreas.
• In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and
women produce them in their ovaries

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 https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and

Hormones
_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundle
ss)/37%3A_The_Endocrine_System/37.02%3A_Types_o
f_Hormones_-_Lipid-Derived_Amino_Acid-Derived_and_
Peptide_Hormones#:~:text=Although%20there%20ar
e%20many%20different,which%20includes%20peptid
es%20and%20proteins
).

• Three classes of hormones

• Amino acid derivatives
– hormones synthesized in few simple steps from an
aminoacid molecule)
• Eg: Epinephrine released by adrenal medulla synthesized
from tyrosine

• Peptides and proteins

– Short and long chains of amino acids
• Steroids
– Synthesized from cholesterol (fat)
– Fat-soluble – able to enter cells and bind to receptors in
cytoplasm or nucleus
https://youtu.be/Tn3c6wgNjB8
https://youtu.be/emvHaBiRY8Q

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 MECHANISM OF HORMONE
ACTION
• Each hormone has receptors that are found on the
cell membrane of the target organ
• Once the hormone bind to its designated receptor, a
series of actions are initiated to release secondary
messengers inside the cell.
• These secondary messengers are responsible for
relaying information to the nucleus or other
organelles
• Based on their structure, receptors are of different
types:
• Internal receptors– they can be either nuclear or cytoplasmic.
Nuclear receptors are found on the nuclear membrane while the
cytoplasmic receptors are found in the cytoplasm of the cell.
These receptors are for the steroid hormones.
• External receptors– These are the transmembrane receptors
which are embedded in the lipid layer of the cell membrane.
These receptors are for the protein ones.
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Conti…
• The mechanism of action hormone can be of two types: First,
where the receptors are fixed and the second, where the
receptors are mobile
1. Fixed Receptor Mechanism:
• This mechanism of action hormone is seen in the protein
hormones such as Adrenaline, insulin, ADH, TSH etc.
• Since they are water soluble, they cannot pass through the cell
membrane as it is made up of a lipid layer. So, they bind to their
extracellular receptors present on the membrane.
• Once the protein hormone binds to the receptor, a series of
reactions occur beginning with the production of adenyl cyclase
(AC) enzyme.
• This enzyme leads to the production of cyclic AMP or cAMP
which is the secondary messenger. This cAMP can now enter
the cell and cause the effect it was meant to bring about.

*cAMP - Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

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15
Conti..
2. Mobile Receptor Mechanism:
• This kind of mechanism is seen in the steroid
hormone that is insoluble in water. They are made up
of fats and therefore can freely pass the lipid layer of
the cell membrane.
• Their receptors are intracellular and not extracellular
like those for the protein ones.
• The intracellular receptors can be floating in the
cytoplasm, on the nuclear membrane or inside the
nucleus. For this reason, their receptors are known as
mobile receptors.
• Summary Video:
Endocrine System: How Hormones Work? (youtube.co
m)

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Endocrine Glands
A group of secretory cells that release
their products, chemical signals called
hormones, usually into the circulation.
The secretions never pass through ducts Fig.1:
Endocrine
• Endocrine glands include: secretion.
• Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and
pineal glands

• Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries,

testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine,
skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta also
have endocrine function.

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Endocrine
glands

https://youtu.be/emvHaBiRY8Q
 The
Hypothalamus
• Part of the diencephalon of the brain.
• Located inferior to the thalamus, known as the
control center

• It’s a major link between the nervous and

the endocrine systems.

• It’s connected to the pituitary gland by blood

vessels and nerve fibers (infundibulum).
• It secretes a number of releasing hormones that
control the secretions of the pituitary gland.
• Also releases oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH)
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 The Pituitary Gland
(The Hypophysis)
• “Master gland” - because it releases various
hormones (trophic hormones) that control
all the major endocrine glands of the body.
• Tropic hormones influence the release of
hormones by other glands
• Two glands – anterior (Adenohypophysis)
and posterior (Neurohypophysis)
• Posterior pituitary – hormones synthesized in the
hypothalamus - Vasopressin (ADH) and Oxytocin
• Anterior pituitary – tropic hormones - FLATPEG
https://youtu.be/BYaR-JgbjCs
https://youtu.be/Uzg0LKPcaGQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVhm2rBGhB0&pp=ygU6YW50ZXJpb3IgYW5kIHBvc3RlcmlvciBwaX
R1aXRhcnkgZ2xhbmQgaG93IGFyZSB0aGV5IGZvcm1lZA%3D%3D
Pituitary gland

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Between week s 5 – 7 of embryo
Blood supply of the pituitary
• The blood supply derives from two groups of
vessels coming off the internal carotid artery:
1. The inferior hypophyseal arteries provide
blood mainly for the neurohypophysis
(posterior pituitary).
2. The superior hypophyseal arteries form a
primary capillary network irrigating the stalk.
The capillaries then rejoin to form venules (the
hypophyseal portal veins) that branch again as
a larger secondary capillary network in the
pars distalis. Through this hypophyseal portal
system, hormones from the hypothalamus
pass to the anterior pituitary gland.
• Hormone-rich venous blood leaves the pituitary
gland by
https://youtu.be/DW22fxiiv7A the anterior and posterior
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Blood supply of the pituitary
gland. 26
 Anterior Pituitary Gland
o Has three types of cells:
Acidophils
• These cells have cytoplasm that stains red or orange, and they secrete growth
hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL).
Basophils
• These cells have cytoplasm that stains bluish, and they secrete corticotrophin
(ACTH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and gonadotrophins (FSH and LH).
Chromophobes (unstained cells)
• These cells have cytoplasm that stains very poorly, and they appear relatively
pale under the microscope. They are non-secretory and serve as support cells
or precursors to the acidophils and basophils

o The synthesis and release of hormones of the anterior pituitary are

controlled by:
1. Releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.
2. Feedback regulation.
o Hypothalamic hormones made by neurosecretory cells transported by axons to
hypophyseal portal system .
o Anterior pituitary hormones act on other endocrine glands.
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 Hormones secreted by the anterior
pituitary
Hormone Target
Growth Hormone (GH) Several
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Thyroid gland
(TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Adrenal cortex
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) Ovaries and
Testes
Leutinizing Hormone (LH)
Prolactin Breast

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 Posterior Pituitary Gland
• Does not synthesize hormones.
• Releases the following hormones:
1. Oxytocin
2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) = Vasopressin
• Contains:
1. Nerve endings
2. Astrocyte-like cells called Pituicytes
• Cell bodies of neurons in the hypothalamus
synthesize these hormone. They’re then transported
through axons in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal
tract to the nerve endings in the posterior pituitary.
Here they remain stored. When need arises, they’re
released from the nerve endings to pass into blood.

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Hypothalamo-hypophyseal
tract.
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https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/long-term-conditions/endocrine-system-2-hypothalamus-and-pituitary-gland-24-
The Thyroid The thyroid gland.
Gland
• A butterfly-shaped gland located inferior
to larynx
• Formed of:
1. Two lobes (right and left) that extend
from the thyroid cartilage to the level
of 5th
tracheal cartilage. They’re
related to carotid
Common the: artery and internal jugular
•

vein
• External and recurrent laryngeal nerves
2. Isthmus: a mass of thyroid tissue that connects
the two lobes. Located opposite the 2nd, 3rd and
4th tracheal rings.
3. A Pyramidal lobe may sometimes be present
extending superiorly from the isthmus.
 The gland is highly vascular. It’s supplied by the

superior and inferior thyroid arteries. 37

 Pyramidal
lobe

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Anatomy of the thyroid
Histology of the thyroid gland
 The thyroid gland consist of
numerous spherical structures
called the thyroid follicles.
 The follicles are lined by epithelial cells (the follicular cells) that
range from squamous to columnar according to activity (the more
active cells are larger).
 Within each follicle there is a lumen into which the thyroid hormones
are secreted.
 The thyroid gland is unique in that it’s the only endocrine
gland in the body that stores its hormones outside the cells.
 Between the follicles, there’s another type
of cell, called the parafollicular or C-
cells, that secrete the hormone calcitonin.

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 Histology of
the thyroid
gland.

 The thyroid hormones include:

 Tri-iodothyronin (T3)

 Tetra-iodothyronin (T4) = thyroxin

 Both these hormones affect the body metabolism, also in

weight, energy levels, internal temperature, skin, hair, nail
growth
 Both these hormones are controlled by TSH from the pituitary
gland and by feedback mechanism. 40
The Parathyroid
Gland
• Embedded in the posterior aspect of the lobes
of the thyroid gland. Each one is surrounded by
its own capsule.
• They are 4 in number.
• Has two types of cells:
1. Chief (Principal) cells: secrete the Parathyroid
Hormone (PTH = parathormone) that regulates
level of calcium and phosphate in blood.
2. Oxyphil cells: Function = Unknown !!??

• Blood calcium level directly controls secretion of

both calcitonin and PTH.

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Position and histology of the parathyroid
gland. 43
 The Adrenal (Suprarenal)
Glands
 Two yellowish glands located on the upper poles of
the two kidneys.
 The right gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the
left is crescentic in shape.
 They’re related to the 12th rib, the diaphragm and
the great vessels of the abdomen
 Each gland is composed of two anatomically and
functionally distinct region:
1. Outer yellow cortex: divided into the zona
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona
reticularis – secretes corticosteroids –
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens
(minimal)
2. Inner brown medulla: a modified sympathetic
ganglion that synthesizes and secretes 44the
hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
The suprarenal glands.

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 Arrangem
ent of Release
cells
Like Mineralocortico
spheres ids

Straight
Glucocorticoids
cords

Branching
Androgens
cords

The histology of the suprarenal

glands.
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• Mineralocorticoids – eg: aldosterone (salt
and water balance in the body)

• Glucocorticoids – Cortisol (stress hormone,

acts on liver, adipose tissues, muscles and
pancreas, increases gluconeogenesis,
increases oxygen supply)

• Androgens – testosterone (secreted in small

amount)
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 Pancreas
• It is partly exocrine and partly endocrine
• Exocrine part (acinar cells) secrets digestive
enzymes
• Endocrine part (islets of the langerhans) secretes
Insulin and glucagon
• Alpha islets – Glucagon
• Beta islets – Insulin

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Insulin-Glucagon cycle

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• Cells in the liver convert glucose into glycogen with the help of insulin and store it
in the liver  when glucose and insulin are present in the blood, some of the
glucose is used as a fuel, and some of it is stored as glycogen when the digestive
tract is empty, blood glucose level falls which is detected by pancreatic cells and
brain Pancreas stops secreting insulin and starts secreting glucagon Glucagon
converts the stored glycogen into glucose.

• Insulin reduces the body's blood sugar levels and provides cells with glucose for
energy by helping cells absorb glucose.
• The absence of insulin means that most of the cells of the body can no longer use
glucose
• Because glucose is fat insoluble, and cannot enter the cells through the cell
membrane freely. It requires glucose transporters. Only when insulin binds with
these transporters, they can transport glucose into the cells.
• When blood sugar levels are too low or when blood glucose level falls as the
digestive tract is empty and it causes the pancreas to stop secreting insulin and to
start secreting glucagon.
• Glucagon instructs the liver to release stored glucose, which causes the body's
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blood sugar levels to rise.
 Gonads
• Gonads produce germ cells (Ova and sperm)
• Also synthesise steroid sex hormones including
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone
3. Testosterone

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Sex Steroids – Released by
Gonads
• Gonads apart from creating sperm and ovum,
they also release some steroid hormones -
androgens and estrogens
• Androgens - e.g., testosterone: masculinizing effects
• Estrogens - e.g., estradiol: feminizing effects
• Adult testes release more androgens and ovaries
release more estrogens
• Progesterones – also present in both sexes
– Females - progesterone prepares uterus and breasts for pregnancy
& lactation
– Males - produce sperm, stimulate weight gain, regulate your mood,
reduce stress levels, regulate blood sugar, maintain a healthy
prostate, counteract estrogen level in body

• Adrenal cortex – also releases sex steroids

Pineal gland

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