普通物理

Lecture 5
Work and Energy

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Contents
Kinetic energy of a moving object 運動能
Work done by a force 力所造成的功
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem 功能原理
Power 功率

Potential Energy 位 ( 勢 ) 能
Conservative and non-conservative forces
保守力與非保守力
Mechanical Energy 力學能
Conservation of Mechanical Energy 力學能守恆
The potential Energy Curve 位能曲線 2
 Kinetic Energy 運動能
Kinetic Energy:

We define a new physical parameter to

describe the state of motion of an object
of mass m and speed v
We define its kinetic energy K as:
2
mv
K
2
We can use the equation above to define the SI unit for work
(the joule, symbol: J ). An object of mass m = 2kg that moves with speed
v = 1 m/s has a kinetic energy K = 1J 3
 Work 功
Work: (symbol W)
If a force F is applied to an object of mass m it can accelerate it and
increase its speed v and kinetic energy K. Similarly F can decelerate m
and decrease its kinetic energy.

F transfers energy W to or from the object

If energy is transferred to the object (its K & v increases)

Positive work (W > 0)

If energy is transferred from the object (its K & v decreases)

Negative work (W < 0)

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 Work 功
Expression for Work
Consider a bead of mass m that can move without friction along a straight
wire along the x-axis. A constant force applied at an angle to the
wire is acting on the bead

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 Work 功
Newton’s second law : Fx = max
We assume that the bead had an initial velocity νo and after it has
traveled a distance d its velocity is ν.
We apply the third equation of kinematics:
We multiply both sides by m / 2→

→The change in kinetic

energy

Thus the work W done by the force F on the bead is given by:

 
W Fd cos  W F d 6
 Work 功

W Fd cos 
 
W F d

The unit of W is the same as that of K i.e. joules

Note 1:
The expressions for work we have developed apply when F is constant
Note 2:
We have made the implicit assumption that the moving object is point-like
Note 3:
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 Work 功
Net Work:
If we have several forces acting on a body (say three as in the picture)
There are two methods that can be used to calculate the net work Wnet

Method 1:
First calculate the work done by each force: WA by force ,
WB by force , and WC by force .
Then determine Wnet = WA + WB + WC

Method 2:

Calculate first ;

Then determine

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Example 1:
A tugboat pushes on a cruise ship with a force =1.2 î + 2.3 ĵ MN, moving
the ship along a straight path with displacement = 380 î + 460 ĵ m.
Find (a) the work done by the tugboat and (b) the angle between the force
and the displacement.

 
W F r Fx x  Fy y
(1.2MN)(380 m)  (2.3 MN)(460 m)
1510 MJ

 W 
 cos  1  
 F  r 
1  1510 MJ  o
cos   12
 (2.59 MN)(597 m) 

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Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

We have seen earlier that : Kƒ － Ki = Wnet .

We define the change in kinetic energy as: ΔK = Kƒ － Ki .
The equation above becomes the work-kinetic energy theorem

K K f  K i Wnet
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 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

Change in the
Net work done
kinetic energy of a
particle on the particle

The work-kinetic energy theorem holds for both positive and negative values of
Wnet

If Wnet > 0 → Kƒ – Ki > 0 → Kƒ > Ki

If Wnet < 0 → Kƒ - Ki < 0 → Kƒ < Ki

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 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Work Done by he Gravitational Force:

Consider a tomato of mass m that is thrown upwards at

point A with initial speed ν0 .
As the tomato rises, it slows down by the gravitational
force Fg so that at point B its has a smaller speed ν.

The work Wg (A→B) done by the gravitational force on

the tomato as it travels from point A to point B is:

WgV (A→B) = mgd cos 180∘= － mgd

The work Wg (B→A) done by the gravitational force on

the tomato as it travels from point B to point A is:
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W (B→A) = mgd cos 0∘= mgd
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Work done by a force in Lifting an object:

Consider an object of mass m that is lifted by a force F from

point A to point B . The object starts from rest at A and
arrives at B with zero speed.
The force F is not necessarily constant during the trip.

The work-kinetic energy theorem states that:

ΔK = Kƒ – Ki = Wnet

We also have that Ki = Kƒ → ΔK = 0 → Wnet = 0

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 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
There are two forces acting on the object:
The gravitational force Fg and the applied force F that lifts the object.
Work done in Lifting an object:
Wnet = Wa (A → B) + Wg (A → B) = 0

Wa (A → B) = － Wg ( A → B )

Wg(A→B) = mgd cos 180∘= － mgd

Work done in Lowering an object:

In this case the object moves from B to A

Wg (B→A) = mgd cos 0° = mgd

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Wa (B→A) = － Wg (B→A) = － mgd
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Work done by a variable force F(x) acting along
the x-axis:
A force F that is not constant but instead varies as
function of x is shown in fig (a). We wish to calculate the
work W that F does on an object it moves from position xi
to position xf

We partition the interval (xi, xƒ) into N “elements” of

length Δx each as is shown in fig (b).

The work done by F in the j - th interval is:

ΔWj=Fj, avgΔx

where F j, avg is the average value of F over the j-th

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elemtne.
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

We then take the limit of the sum as Δx→0, (or

equivalently N → ∞)

Geometrically, W is the area between F(x) curve and

the x-axis, between xi and xƒ (shaded blue in fig)
xf

W  F ( x)dx
xi 16
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
The Spring Force:

Fig.a shows a spring in its relaxed state.

In fig.b we pull one end of the spring and stretch it

by an amount d.
The spring resists by exerting a force F on our hand
in the opposite direction.

In fig.c we push one end of the spring and compress

it by an amount d.
Again the spring resists by exerting a force F on our
hand in the opposite direction

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 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
The force F exerted by the spring on whatever agent (in the picture our hand)
is trying to change its natural length either by extending or by compressing it
is given by the equation: F = － kx
Here x is the amount by which the spring has been extended or compressed.

This equation is known as “Hookes law”

k is known as “spring constant”

F  kx
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 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Work done by a Spring Force
Consider the relaxed spring of spring constant k By
applying an external force we change the spring’s
length from xi to xf

The work Ws done by the spring on the external agent

(in this case our hand) that changed the spring length.
(assume the spring is massless and it obeys Hooke’s
law)

xi = 0 & xƒ = ± x
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Example 2:

1 2 1 2
mv  kd
2 2
m 0.4
d v 0.5 0.012m
k 750

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Example 3:

Since W=1/2 k x2 and from the graph we have:

1 1
0.9  k (3) 2 (a )W  (0.2)(52  4 2 ) 0.9 J
2 2
1
k 0.2 (b)W  (0.2)(52  ( 2) 2 ) 2.1
2
1
(c)W  0.2(52  ( 5) 2 ) 0
2 21
 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Three dimensional Analysis:

In the general case the force F acts in three dimensional space and moves an object
on a three dimensional path from an initial point A to a final point B

The force has the form: F F  x, y, z iˆ  F  x, y, z  ˆj  F  x, y , z  kˆ
x y z

Po int s A and B have coordinates  xi , yi , zi  and  x f , y f , z f , respectively

 
dW F dr Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz
B xf yf zf

W dW  Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz z

B
A xi yi zi

x O path
xf yf zf
y
A
W  Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz
xi yi zi
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Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem with a Variable Force:
Conside a variable force F(x) which moves an object of mass m from point A( x  xi )
dv
to point B( x  x f ). We apply Newton's second law: F ma m We then
dt
dv
multiply both sides of the last equation with dx and get: Fdx m dx
dt
xf xf
dv
We integrate both sides over dx from xi to x f : Fdx  m dx
xi xi
dt
dv dv dx dv dv dx
  dx  dx vdv Thus the integral becomes:
dt dx dt dt dx dt
xf 2
m 2 x f mv f mvi2
W m vdv   v    K f  K i K
xi
2 xi 2 2
Note: The work-kinetic energy theorem has exactly the same form as in the case
when F is constant!
m F(x)
W K f  K i K
O .
A

dx
.
B x-axis

x
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 Power 功率
Power
We define “power” P as the rate at which work is done by a force F.
If F does work W in a time interval Δt then we define as the average power as:

W dW
Pavg  P
t dt

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 Power 功率
The instantaneous power is defined as
Unit of P:

The SI unit of power is the watt. It is defined as the power of an engine that
does work W = 1 J in a time t = 1 second

A commonly used non-SI power unit is the horsepower (hp) defined as:
1hp = 746 W

The kilowatt-hour

The kilowatt-hour (k Wh) is a unit of work. It is defined as the work

performed by an engine of power
P = 1000 W in a time t=1 hour W = Pt = 1000 * 3600 = 3.60 * 10 6 J The
kWh is used by electrical utility companies (check your latest electric bill)
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 Power 功率
Consider a force F acting on a particle at an angle to the motion.
The rate at which F does work is given by:

 
P Fv cos  F v

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 Work & Potential Energy 功 & 位能

Work and Potential Energy:

Consider the tomato of mass m shown in the
figure. The tomato is thrown upwards with initial
speed vo at point A. Under the action of the
gravitational force it slows down and stops
completely at point B. Then the tomato falls back
and by the time it reaches point A its speed has
reached the original value vo.

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 Work & Potential Energy 功 & 位能
Below we analyze in detail what happens to the tomato-
earth system. During the trip from A to B the
gravitational force Fg does negative work W1 = － mgh.
Energy is transferred by Fg from the kinetic energy of
the tomato to the gravitational potential energy U of the
tomato-earth system. During the trip from B to A the
transfer is reversed. The work W2 done by Fg is
positive ( W2 = mgh ). The gravitational force transfers
energy from the gravitational potential energy U of the
tomato-earth system to the kinetic energy of the tomato.
The change in the potential energy U is defined as:

U  W 28
 Work & Potential Energy 功 & 位能

Consider the mass m attached to a spring of spring

constant k as shown in the figure. The mass is taken
together with the spring as the system we wish to study.
The mass is given an initial speed vo at point A. Under
the action of the spring force it slows down and stops
completely at point B which corresponds to a spring
compression x. Then the mass reverses the direction of its
motion and by the time it reaches point A its speed has
reached the original value vo.

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Work & Potential Energy 功 & 位能
During the trip from A to B the spring force Fs
does negative work W1 = － kx2/2 . Energy is
transferred by Fs from the kinetic energy of the
mass to the potential energy U of the mass-spring
system.
During the trip from B to A the transfer is
reversed. The work W2 done by Fs is positive
( W2 = kx2/2 ). The spring force transfers energy
from the potential energy U of the mass-spring
system to the kinetic energy of the mass. The
change in the potential energy U is defined as:

U  W 30
 Determination of Potential Energy

A conservative force F moves an object along the x-axis from an initial

point xi to a final point xƒ. The work W that the force F does on the object
is given by:
F(x)

.O . x
.
x
x
xi f

The corresponding change in potential energy ΔU was defined as:

ΔU = － W
Therefore the expression for ΔU becomes:
xf

U  F ( x)dx
xi
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Example 5:

(3), (1), (2)

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 Determination of Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential energy:
Consider a particle of mass m moving vertically along the y-
axis from point yi to point yƒ.
At the same time the gravitational force does work W on the
particle which changes the potential energy of the particle-
earth system. We use the result of the previous section to
calculate ΔU

ΔU = mg (yƒ － yi) = mg Δy
yi = 0, yf= y , Ui=0

U ( y ) mgy
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 Determination of Potential Energy
Potential Energy of a spring
Consider the block-mass system shown in the figure.
The block moves from point xi to point xf . At the
same time the spring force does work W on the block
which changes the potential energy of the block-
spring system by an amount

2
ΔU = mg (yƒ － yi) = mg Δy kx
U 
xi = 0, xf= x , Ui=0
2 34
Conservative and Non-conservative Forces
The gravitational force and the spring force are called “conservative”
because they can transfer energy from the kinetic energy of part of the system
to potential energy and vice versa.
The frictional and drag forces are called “non-conservative” because the
energy transfer cannot be reversed :
d
A B
vo
fk m fk m
x

During the trip work done by frictional force from point A to point B
Wf = － μkmgd The frictional force transfers energy from the kinetic energy
of the block to a type of energy called thermal energy. This energy transfer
cannot be reversed 35
Path Independence of Conservative Forces
A force is conservative if the net work done on a particle during a round trip is
always equal to zero (see fig.b). W 0net
Such a round trip along a closed path is shown in fig.b. In the examples of
the tomato-earth and mass-spring system Wnet = Wab,1 + Wba,2 = 0
If a force is conservative then the work done on a particle between two points
a and b does not depend on the path.
From fig.b we have: Wnet = Wab,1 + Wba,2 = 0  Wab,1 = - Wba,2 (eqs.1)

From fig.a we have: Wab,2 = - Wba,2 (eqs.2)

If we compare eqs.1 and eqs.2 we get:

Wab ,1 Wab ,2
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Example 4:

No, F is non-conservative because the work done depends on

the path.

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 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy
The sum of potential and kinetic energies Emech = K + U

Assume the system is isolated ( no external forces change the energy of the
sytem). We also assume that all the forces in the system are conservative.

When an interal force does work W on an object of the system this changes the
kinetic energy by
ΔK = W (eqs.1)
This amount of work also changes the potential energy of the system by an
amount
ΔU = － W (eqs.2)

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 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

If we compare equations 1 and 2 we have:

ΔK = － ΔU→
K2 － K1 = － (U2 － U1) → K1 + U1 = K2 + U2

This equation is known as the principle of conservation of mechanical

energy. It can be summarized as:

Emech K  U 0
For an isolated system in which the forces are a mixture of conservative and
non conservative forces the principle takes the following form

Emech Wnc
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Here, Wnc is defined as the work of all the non-consrvative forces of the system
Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The total mechanical energy of the bob-

earth system remains constant. As the
pendulum swings, the total energy E is
transferred back and forth between
kinetic energy K of the bob and
potential energy U of the bob-earth
system

We assume that U is zero at the lowest

point of the pendulum orbit. K is
maximum in frame a, and e (U is
minimum there). U is maximum in
frames c and g (K is minimum there)

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 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Work done on a System by an External Force

The system under study is a bowling ball

being hurled by a player.
The system consists of the ball and the earth
taken together. The force exerted on the ball
by the player is an external force. In this
case the mechanical energy Emec of the system
is not constant. Instead it changes by an
amount equal to the work W done by the
external force according to the equation:

W Emec K  U
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 Potential Energy Curve
A F B
.
O
. . x
Finding the force F(x) analytically from
x x + Δx
the potential energy U(x)

The force does work W on the object given by the equation:

W = F Δx eqs.1
The work of the force changes the potential energy U of the system by the
amount:
ΔU = － W eqs.2

If we combine equations 1 and 2 we get:

We take the limit as Δx→0 and we end up with the equation:

dU ( x)
F ( x) 
dx 42
 Potential Energy Curve
The potential Energy Curve
If we plot the potential energy U versus x for a
force F that acts along the x-axis we can glean a
wealth of information about the motion of a
particle on which F is acting. The first parameter
that we can determine is the force F(x) using the
equation:
dU ( x)
F ( x) 
dx

For example at x2 , x3 and x4 the slope of the U(x) vs x curve is zero, thus F = 0.
The slope dU/dx between x3 and x4 is negative; Thus F > 0 for this interval.
The slope dU/dx between x2 and x3 is positive; Thus F < 0 for the same interval43
 Potential Energy Curve
Turning Points:
The total mechanical energy is Emec=K(x)+U(x)
This energy is constant (equal to 5 J in the figure) and is thus
represented by a horizontal line. We can solve this equation for K(x)
and get:
K(x)=Emec － U(x)
At any point x on the x-axis we can read the value of U(x).
Then we can solve the equation above and determine K

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 Potential Energy Curve

the kinetic energy cannot be negative

This property of K allows us to determine which regions of the x-axis

motion is allowed. K(x) = K(x) = Emec － U(x)
If K > 0→Emech － U(x) > 0 → U(x) < Emec Motion is allowed
If K < 0→Emech － U(x) < 0 → U(x) > Emec Motion is forbidden
The points at which: Emec = U(x) are known as turning points for the
motion. For example x1 is the turning point for the U versus x plot above.
At the turning point K = 0 45
 Potential Energy Curve

Given the U(x) versus x curve the turning points

and the regions for which motion is allowed
depends on the value of the mechanical energy
Emec

In the picture to the left consider the situation when Emec = 4 J (purple line)
The turning points (Emec = U ) occur at x1 and x > x5. Motion is allowed
for x > x1 If we reduce Emec to 3 J or 1 J the turning points and regions of
allowed motion change accordingly.

46
 Potential Energy Curve
Equilibrium Points:
A position at which the slope dU/dx = 0 and thus F = 0 is called an
equilibrium point. A region for which F = 0 such as the region x > x5 is called
a region of neutral equilibrium. If we set Emec = 4 J the kinetic energy K = 0
and any particle moving under the influence of U will be stationary at any
point with x > x5

Equilibrium point is the location where the

force is zero, i.e. the slope of U(x) is 0.
1. If it is a minimum in U(x), then it is a
stable equilibrium point.
2. If it is a maximum, then it is a unstable
equilibrium; a small derivation will cause
the particle moves away from the point. 47
 Potential Energy Curve
Positions of Stable Equilibrium 穩定平衡
dU ( x)
An example is point x4 where U has a minimum. F ( x) 
If we arrange Emec = 1 J then K = 0 at point x4. A dx
particle with Emec = 1 J is stationary at x4. If we
displace slightly the particle either to the right or
to the left of x4 the force tends to bring it back to
the equilibrium position. This equilibrium is
stable.
Positions of Unstable Equilibrium 不穩定平衡
Note: The blue arrows in the
An example is point x3 where U has a maximum. figure indicate the direction of
If we arrange Emec = 3 J then K = 0 at point x3. A the force F as determined from
particle with Emec = 3 J is stationary at x3. If we the equation:
displace slightly the particle either to the right or
to the left of x3 the force tends to take it further
away from the equilibrium position. This 48
Example 6:

1 2
Initial energy: mv1
2

1 2
Final energy: kd  f k d
2

Conservation of energy tells us that:

1 2 1 2
kd  f k d  mv1 0
2 2 49
Example
7:

Assume it stops at a distance d from the left

edge:
Initial potential energy = Heat lost due to friction

Since d is larger than L, so the particle

L
mg mg k L  mgh1
has enough energy to climb the right 2
curved portion: L
h1    k L 12cm 50
2
 Assignment 5

Chapter 6
13 、 21 、 28 、 34 、 50

Chapter 7
9 、 13 、 20 、 26 、 45

51