RELATED

LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
INTRODUCTION
Related literature is composed of
discussions of facts and principles to which
the present study is related. For instance, if
the present study deals with drug addiction,
literature to be reviewed or surveyed should
be composed
addiction. of materials
These materialsthat
aredeal with drug
usually printed and found in books,
encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and
other publications.
These materials are classified as:
1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.
INTRODUCTION

Related studies, on the other hand,

are studies, inquiries, or investigations
already conducted to which the present
some bearing
proposed studyorissimilarity.
related orThey
has are usually unpublished materials such
as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.
They may be classified as
1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
 IMPORTANCE,
PURPOSES, AND
FUNCTIONS OF
RELATED
LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
A survey or review of
related literature and studies
is very important because such
reviewed literature and studies
serve as a foundation of the
proposed study. This is because
related literature and studies
guide the researcher in pursuing
his research venture.
 Importance, Purposes, and
Functions of Related
Literature and Studies
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following
ways:
1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better
research problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a
similar problem may be found better than the problem already chosen.
Replication is the study of a research problem already conducted but in another
place.
2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing
related literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is
duplication if an investigation already made is con- ducted again in the same
locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of
related literature and studies be made first.
4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted
 Importance, Purposes, and
Functions of Relayed
Literature and Studies
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the
following ways:
5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in
a) the formulation of specific questions to be researched on:
b) the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;
c) the formulation of conceptual framework;
d) the selection and application of the methods of research;
e) the selection and application of sampling techniques;
f) the selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments
for gathering data;
g) the selection and application of statistical procedures;
h) the analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;
i) the making of the summary of implications for the whole study;
j) the formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and
recommendations; and
 Importance, Purposes, and
Functions of Relayed
Literature and Studies
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the
following ways:
6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his
findings with the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the
end in view of formulating generalizations or principles which are the
contributions of the study to the fund of knowledge.
There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value.
Among these characteristics are:
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is important
because of the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes.
Findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast
changing life style of the people.
There are exceptions, however. Treatises that deal on universals or things of
more or less permanent nature may still be good today. There are mathematical
laws and formulas and statistical procedures that had been formulated a long, long
time ago which are being used today with very, very little improvement. This is also
true with natural and physical laws. Books on these, though written a long time
ago, are still being cited today.
Another exception is when a comparison or contrast is to be made
between the conditions of today and those of a remote past, say ten or
twenty years ago. Naturally, literature and studies about that remote
past have to be surveyed and re- viewed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are
extremely or subtly onesided, either political, or religious, etc. Comparison with
these materials cannot be made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations
may result.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have
some bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and
true facts or data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where
fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research report (thesis or
dissertation). Of course, this kind of deception is hard to detect and to prove.
Thus, this is a real problem to honest researchers.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. They
must only be sufficient enough to give insight into the research
problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The
number may also depend upon the
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
5. availability of related materials. Sometimes there is a paucity of such
materials. Ordinarily, from ten to fifteen related materials are needed for
a master's thesis and from fifteen to twenty-five for a doctoral
dissertation depending upon their availability, as well as their depth and
length of discussions. For an undergraduate thesis, from five to ten may
do. The numbers, however, are only suggestive and not imperative nor
mandatory. These are only the average numbers observed from theses
and dissertations surveyed by this author.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
SOURCES OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references.
2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines,
periodicals, newspapers, and other publications.
3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and
diaries.
4. Unpublished theses and dissertations.
5. The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land.
6. Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from govemment
offices and departments, especially from the Office of the
President of the Philippines and the Department of Education,
Culture and Sports.
SOURCES OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
7. Records of schools, public and private, especially
reports of their activities.
8. Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
9. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social,
economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from
the government and other entities.
Where to Locate the
Sources of Related
Literature and Studies

1. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.

2. Government and private offices.
3. The National Library
4. The Library of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports.
The last two are especially rich depositories of related
materials, particularly unpublished master's theses and doctoral
dissertations.
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY
AND DISCUSSION

1. What is the nature of related literature and studies?

2. How are related literature and studies classified?
3. Why are related literature and studies important in research?
What are their functions?
4. How are good related literature and studies characterized?
5. From what sources may related studies and literature be taken?
Where are these sources located?
DESCRIPTIV
E RESEARCH
 MEANING OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Although descriptive research has only one meaning, several authors
have defined it in their own several ways. Some of the definitions are:
Manuel and Medel define descriptive research thus: Descriptive
research describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis,
and interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of
phenomena. The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how a person, group, or
thing behaves or functions in the present. It often involves some type of
comparison or contrast. (Manuel and Medel, p. 25)
Aquino gives this definition. Descriptive research is fact-finding
with adequate interpretation. The descriptive method is something more and
beyond just data-gathering; the latter is not reflective thinking nor research.
The true meaning of the data collected should be reported from the point of
view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the project under way. This
follows logically after careful classification of data. Facts obtained may be
accurate expressions of central tendency, or deviation, or of correlation; but
the report is not research unless discussion of those data is not carried up to
 MEANING OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Descriptive research is defined by Best in the following way:
Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is
concerned with conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevail;
beliefs, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt, or trends
that are developing.
The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering
and tabulation of data. It involves the elements or interpretation of the
meaning or significance of what is described. Thus, description is often
combined with comparison and contrast involving measurements,
classifications, interpretation and evaluation. (Cited by Sanchez, p. 83)
In other words, descriptive research may be defined as a
purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data
about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and
cause- effect relationships and then making adequate and accurate
CHARACTERISTICS OF
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a

group or case under study.
2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of
the general characteristics of the group or case under study.
3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.
4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and
the change or progress that took place between the periods may
be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.
5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be
CHARACTERISTICS OF
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are

not usually controlled.
7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally cross-
sectional, that is, it studies the different sections belonging to
the same group.
8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for
purposes of verification and comparison.
1. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of principles and
generalizations in behavioral sciences. This is especially true in causal-
comparative and correlation studies. When several inquiries register the same
findings on a certain subject, then a principle or generalization may be formed
about that subject.
2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of standard norms of
conduct, behavior, or performance. This is especially true in psychological testing,
as for instance, norms in an intelligence test. Normative standards are based on
what are prevalent.
3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial
measures may be instituted. It reveals to us what we do not want, what we want,
and how to acquire what we want.
4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction of the future on
the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, correlations, and on
the basis of reactions of people toward certain issues. For instance,
the winning candidate in an election may be predicted on the basis
of a survey.
VALUE, IMPORTANCE, AND
ADVANTAGES OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
5. Descriptive research gives a better and deeper understanding of a
phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth study of the phenomenon.
6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making. Business managers
often base their decisions upon business researches. Government policy
makers usually rely upon descriptive investigations for making the needed
policies. In education, the curriculum has been constructed based upon
descriptive researches in child and adolescent psychology.
7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with which we do
research, such as, instruments for the measurement of many things,
instruments that are employed in all types of quantitative research. These
instruments include schedules, checklists, score
cards, and rating scales. Descriptive studies contribute to the
development of these data-gathering devices in two ways - first
through creating directly a demand for them, and second through
providing the normative, standardizing procedures by which the scales
VALUE, IMPORTANCE, AND
are evaluated and calibrated. (Good and Scates, pp. 258-259)
ADVANTAGES OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
 TECHNIQUES
UNDER THE
DESCRIPTIVE
METHOD OF
RESEARCH
There are three techniques
under the descriptive method of
research: (1) the survey, (2) the
case study, and (3) content
analysis.
Survey, otherwise known as
normative survey, is a fact-
finding study with adequate and
accurate interpretation. It is used
to collect demographic data
 TECHNIQUES
UNDER THE
DESCRIPTIVE
METHOD OF
RESEARCH
about people's behavior,
practices, intentions, beliefs,
attitudes, opinions, judgments,
interests, perceptions, and the
like and then such data are
analyzed, organized, and
interpreted.
Case study is a
comprehensive, complete,
detailed, and in-depth study and
Diff erences Between Survey and
Case Study

Survey Case Study

Case study may involve and
The group surveyed is usually usually involves one person,
large. family, small group, or small
community.
The number of aspects or Usually, all aspects or variables in
variables in the life of the group the life cycle of the case under
surveyed is limited. study are included.
Cause-effect relationships are not Finding the causes of certain
given emphasis. Aim of a study phenomena is always a part of a
may only be to determine status. case study.
Diff erences Between Survey and
Case Study
Survey Case Study
Representatives is not important.
Representatives is important and The results of a single case study
is given emphasis. do not provide certainty that the
case is truly representative.
Curiosity, interest, or just to Abnormalities or undesirable traits
determine norm or status may or conditions usually initiate a
initiate a survey. case study.
Only conditions or practices
present during the survey are
Data about the case from birth or
considered except in comparative
origin or even of the future are
studies when present conditions
considered.
are compared with conditions in
the past,
ADVANTAGES OF THE
SURVEY APPROACH OVER
THE CASE STUDY
APPROACH
1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the
behavior or performance of an individual can be judged or evaluated. For
instance, if survey reveals that the typical kind of marriage is
monogamy, then a man with two wives deviates from the standard.
2. The results of a survey may be used for prediction. This is especially true
in correlation studies or even in status studies. For example, studies
show that there is a significant correlation between NCEE percentile
ranks and college grades. Hence, a student with a high NCEE percentile
rank is expected to have high grades in college work.
3. Survey makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the
sample has a high degree of representativeness. This is especially true if
the sample is adequate and proper sampling procedures are used in the
selection of the samples.
ADVANTAGES OF THE
SURVEY APPROACH OVER
THE CASE STUDY
APPROACH
4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures
may be instituted.
5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey.
6. The instruments for gathering data are easy to determine,
construct, validate, and administer. The survey instruments
are usually the interview schedule as well as the
questionnaire and they are very similar if not the same in
structure.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE
SURVEY APPROACH OR
TECHNIQUE
Although there are advantages of the survey approach there
are also disadvantages such as the following, the first three being
given by Simon: (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 150)
1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables.
2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another of
the independent variable to get closer to the real cause.
3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of
several independent variables when there is multivariable
causation, especially when two independent variables are
themselves highly associated.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE
SURVEY APPROACH OR
TECHNIQUE

4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is

no control at all over extraneous variables.
5. The instrument for gathering data may lack validity,
reliability, or adequacy.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
The following are the types of survey from which the
researcher may select one depending upon the situation, his
interest and goal, professional competence to tackle the work, and
financial capability: (Treece and Treece, Jr., pp. 151-154)
1. Total population survey. The entire population is involved in
the survey.
2. Sample survey. Only a sample or portion of the population is
involved in the survey.
3. Social survey. The investigator researches on the attitudes and
behaviors of different groups of people.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
4. School survey. This is used to gather data for and about schools and
to assess educational achievement and education itself. (Some or all
aspects of the school may be surveyed: qualifications of teachers,
methods and techniques of teaching, facilities, achievements of pupils
in the different subjects, administration and supervision, curriculum,
teacher-pupil ratio, and the like)
5. Public opinion survey. This is used to gauge the reactions of people
towards certain issues or persons. (For instance, people may be asked
in a survey how much they agree with the way the President is running
the government)
6. Poll survey. This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they
are voting for a certain candidate in an election. This survey is used to
predict the chance of winning of a certain /candidate in an election.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
7. Market survey. This is aimed at finding out what kinds of people
purchase which products, and how packaging, advertising, and
displaying affect buying, prices, and so on. Allied to this is the
motivation survey in which the subjects are asked why they purchase
certain commodities.
8. Evaluation survey. The researcher looks back to see what has been
accomplished and, with a critical eye, evaluates the results whether
they are satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making
improvements.
9. Comparative survey. In this survey, the results from two different
groups, techniques, or procedures are compared. This may be used
also to compare the effectiveness of a new procedure with an old one
or with a standard, or two new procedures may be compared.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
10. Short-term survey. In this survey, data are collected over a
period of weeks, months, or even years but the period should be
less than five years.
11.Long-term survey. Any survey conducted for more than five
years is a long-term survey. The best example is the survey made
by Terman about exceptional children. It lasted nearly thirty years.
Terman studied his subjects during their academic carcers on
through their academic life to find if gifted children accomplish any
more than normal children. The difficulty with this type of survey is
the attrition of the subjects through sickness, death, moving to
other places, refusal to participate any longer, and other causes.
Change of attitude due to maturation and education has to be
considered also as a difficulty, plus, the high cost involved.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
12. Longitudinal survey. This is almost the same as the long-term survey. An
example of this is the practice of economists to use time-series analysis in
which they compare data collected at present with data that were collected
sometime in the past. The researchers may carry out such studies by asking
their subjects questions about a past event and compare their responses to
the present affairs of things.
13.Cross-sectional survey. In this type of survey, several groups in various
stages of envolvement are studied simultaneously. In studying the effects of
smoking for a period of twenty years, if we use the longitudinal survey, we
start with the subjects who have just started smoking and study them for
twenty years before the results could be determined. In the cross-sectional
survey, we do not wait for the end of twenty years. We simply pick out people
who have been smoking for the last twenty years and another group who had
not smoked at all and subject both groups to a rigid physical diagnosis to find
out the physical conditions of the smokers and the non-smokers.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
Allied to the cross-sectional survey is the cross-cultural survey. In
this survey, groups of different cultural back- and a Moslem community
may be studied to find out if they grounds may be studied. For instance,
a Christian community have similarities and differences; a Filipino
farming village and a Japanese farming village; a Filipino market place
and an Indonesian market place; and the like.
In addition, the following are included in the list: (Manuel and
Medel, pp. 34-35)
14. Job analysis survey. This provides information on the general
duties and responsibilities of workers, their education, training,
experiences, salaries, types of knowledge and skills, and others that
help administrators or managers in setting up training programs and
recruitment policies.
TYPES OF SURVEY
TECHNIQUE OR
APPROACH
15. Community survey. This survey provides information on the
various aspects of the community: health, employment, housing,
education, economic resources, delinquency, family, population,
other social problems, and so on.
16. Correlation study. This is a study that shows the relationship
Il 16. between two or more variables, that is, how a variable
varies with another. (Good defines correlation as the tendency
for corresponding observations in two or more series to vary
together from the averages of their respective series, that is, to
have similar relative positions. (Good, p. 134) For example, if
two tests have a high correlation, one who gets high in one test
will also get a high score in the other.
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CASE STUDY AND CASE WORK
EXPERIMENTA
L RESEARCH
 EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
The second qualitative method of research is the experimental
method. It is different from the descriptive method in a sense of time, for it
is future oriented. Unlike other methods of research, it is never hypothesis-
free.
The experimental method ushers new terms and “participants” in
the process per se, for it introduces “controlled” and “experimental
variable,” whether quasi or true experimental designs.
An experimental design can be easily discerned from its title, usually
with respect to the extent an "experimental or independent variable" is
"effective" on the dependent variable.
In general, experimental designs are "solitary" designs for it cannot
serve as a composite method or collaborative method with other methods.
The experimental method is viewed as a method with the most
utilitarian and most "prestigious" and most "sophisticated method" in a
sense that it always brings to the fore important new knowledge and ushers
advanced information, especially where quality of life is concerned. Unlike
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
a. It has two important and necessary "actors": the "controlled" and the
"experimental" variables.
b. The experimental, or the independent variable, is manipulated and
applied to a dependent variable, while the latter is held constant.
c. The "effects" of the independent variable on the dependent variable
is measured, and is usually the criterion measure for an experimental
design.
d. Experimental designs are usually numeric and caters to sophisticated
statistical design.
e. Usually, experimental designs are limited to small samples.
f. Experimental designs are labor intensive since it is done in the
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental designs involve two groups: Controlled and
the Experimental Group, although there is a quasi experimental
single group, with pre and post-test information. More groups are
used to more sophisticated designs.
The Experimental Group receives the treatment under
investigation and is expected to gain something, while the
Control Group receives the treatment, usually in an ordinary
technique.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
True experimental designs have the following characteristics:
1. Manipulation
The researcher does something to at least the subjects in the
study. There is the presence of an experimental variable which is
introduced in the experiment and its effects are determined.
When you set up groups and you randomly assign them to
treatments, you are in effect manipulating the variable treatment.
Some variables in the experiment may not be manipulated,
such as gender, socio-economic status, age, or mental ability. These
are non-manipulative variables.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
1. Manipulation
If you have three well-chosen groups and you randomly assign
them to three treatments, and you would like to find out which group
will profit from the treatments, the boys or the girls, the high average
or the low socio-economic status groups, the younger or older
children, the high average or low mental ability children, you are
actually using gender, socio-economic status, and mental ability as
non-manipulative variables. Any group can receive one of the
treatments, but no group can be seen to become males or females,
nor can any group be assigned to any non-manipulative group.
2. Control
The researcher is able to control one or more variables.
Generally, in an experiment, these are the control and the
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
2. As what has already been mentioned, it is very important in your
work as an experimental researcher to be sure that the two groups
are equal at the start of the experiment. Furthermore, you should
give the groups sufficient exposure to the treatments you are
investigating. This means that you are giving the treatments the
"chance to work.“
Examples:
a. Suppose you are experimenting on the effects of feedback on
science achievement. Suppose that one group is given extra
teaching of the lesson covered in the experiment. Control here is
necessary because the objective of the experiment is to
determine which of the two treatments is effective. Giving one
group extra teaching gives this group an advantage over the
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
b. A mathematics teacher wants to find out if the use of the Galley
Method of multiplication will be effective. among third year high
school students taking algebra. One group will be given the
traditional method of multiplication. This is the control group,
while other group will be using the method of multiplication in
Algebra. This is the experimental group and the experimental
variable in the Galley Method of teaching. The two groups shall
be matched according to mental ability and a pre-test.
• The independent variable – method of teaching
• The dependent variable – performance in algebra
c. A medical student wants to find out how long blood samples
placed in test tubes and then immersed in iced water will be
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• Dependent variable - blood samples in the test tubes soaked in
ice
3. Randomization
In this method, the researcher assigns subjects for the Control
Group and the Experimental Group, the latter using the experimental
variable.
The third characteristic of an experimental design is
randomness, that is, the experimental variable is randomly applied to
the experimental group. The researcher should be as objective as
possible, assigning as well the different subjects without personal
bias.
Randomness is based on the assumption that differences
between the two groups will tend to cancel each other out.
 DIFFERENT MATCHING
METHODS
One of the most difficult aspects of the experimental method is the
arrangement of the control variables, especially when two groups are
used. The two groups must be initially alike or should be matched. The two
groups could be similar on the results of the pre-test, or they could be
similar in other factors, such as gender, age, socio-economic status,
intelligence, curriculum year, or others which may be necessitated by the
purpose of the experiment.
In experimental designs, the experimental variable or the
independent variable, is selected in accordance to its relevance to the
criterion measure. On the basis of these variables, you equate groups by
randomly assigning pair members, one member from each group. For each
of the available subjects, you find another subject with the same or similar
score on the variable or the variable which is the basis for matching.
Subjects who do not have a match must be eliminated. As a matter of fact,
it is desirable to have more than the number of pairs in both groups, for if
one member, for instance, in the control group drops out, its counterpart in
 DIFFERENT MATCHING
METHODS
Among the different matching methods are the following:
1. Person-to-person matching. Here, people are selected on the basis
of similar or identical personal characteristics. One of the most
important variables to be controlled is intelligence, for what others say,
it is "bad" intervening variable. Many results are affected adversely by
intelligence. It is one variable that should be controlled in experimental
designs.
Here, you look for people similar or the same on the variable and you
randomly assign them to groups. An individual in the control group has a
counterpart in the experimental group.
2. Matching groups. In bigger populations, groups are paired on a
variable. It is held that the two groups are similar on the basis of the
mean and the standard deviation of the scores used in measuring the
variable. However, matching group is less precise than the person-to-
 DIFFERENT MATCHING
METHODS
3. Ranking method. Sometimes, the subjects of the study are ranked in
some selected variables, like achievements, grades, socio- economic
variables, and others depending on the problems of the research. The
process of selection is continued until all the subjects have been assigned.
4. Homogenous group. Another way of controlling extraneous variables is
by comparing groups that are homogenous. If you think that the age can
affect the dependent variable, you may as well use only one age group.
This is holding age as constant. If gender would be an extraneous variable,
then you can employ either boys or girls only. If intelligence will affect the
outcome of the study, which generally does, you may draw only subjects
of the same IQ level. There is a disadvantage of homogeneous selection,
however, that is, the findings of the study are limited only to subjects
involved, and there is less generalization of the results since only one level
of the variable is employed.
5. Using subjects as their own controls. This involves using the same
subjects for the treatments. If there are three methods of instruction to try
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
(ANCOVA)
One of the uses of Analysis of Covariance is when using
two experimental groups and there is no particular method to
putting them in initial form. Analysis of Covariance will identify
later if the samples have been selected or not. A detailed
discussion of the method will be found in Statistics.
Thank you