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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES I
CENG 6103

BY: DR. AHMED M.

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contents
1. Introduction to Systems Analysis and Management Techniques
2. Planning fundamentals
• General Introduction planning
• The Critical Path Method (CPM) scheduling
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT)
• Linear Scheduling Method (LSM) or Line-of-Balance Schedules
• Resource Allocation and Leveling

3. Formulation and application of Linear Programming

• General Introduction to programming
• The Simplex Method
• Transportation problems
• Assignment problems

4. Project Management Softwares

• Introduction to Computerized CPM Scheduling
• Tips for Learning Project Management Software
• Comparison of Popular Project Management Software
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LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES
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Introduction
A system is any structure, device, scheme, or procedure, real or
abstract, that interrelates in a given time reference, an input, cause, or
stimulus, of matter, energy, or information, and an output, effect or
response, of information, energy or matter.

A system is commonly defined to be ‘‘a collection of hardware,

software, people, facilities, and procedures organized to accomplish
some common objectives.’’

A system is “an organized or complex whole; an assemblage of things

or parts interacting in a coordinated way.”
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Introduction
The input-output relationship of a system is controlled by the
nature, parameters of the system and the physical laws governing
the system.

In many of the system practice, the nature and the principal laws
are very complex, and systems modeling in such cases uses
simplifying assumptions and transformation functions, which
convert the input to the corresponding output, ignoring the
mechanics of the physical processes involved in the transformation.

System analysis is usually understood as a set of mathematical

planning and design techniques, which includes formal optimization
procedure. When scarce resources must be used effectively,
system analysis techniques stand particularly promising.
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Introduction
• A major characteristic of the engineering of systems is the
attention devoted to the entire life cycle of the system.
• This life cycle has been characterized as ‘‘birth to death,’’
and ‘‘lust to dust.’’
• A project is a system of people, equipment, materials, and
facilities organized and managed to achieve a goal.
• Much of the established theory and practice about what it
takes to put together and coordinate project organizations
comes from a perspective called “systems thinking” or the
“systems approach.”
• At the same time, work done in projects is often done for
the purpose of creating systems.
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SYSTEMS THINKING
Systems thinking is a way of viewing the world.
• It is the opposite of analytical thinking in which things are broken
into progressively smaller parts and more highly specialized
disciplines.
• Part of what distinguishes systems thinkers from analytical thinkers
is that the former focus on “whole organisms” rather than just the
parts.
• Systems thinking is the ability to take a confused, chaotic situation
and perceive some degree of order and interrelationship.
• Although project managers must be familiar with and coordinate
the individual parts of the project, most of the responsibility for each
of those parts is delegated to section managers and technicians
who specialize in them.
• Project managers are concerned with the “big picture,” and as
such, they must be systems thinkers
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System parts
• The parts need not be physical entities; they can be
abstract or conceptual entities, such as words in a
language or steps in a procedure.
• Everyday usage of the word is included with such
disparate things as construction system, material supply
system, procurement system, river systems,
transportation and communication systems, production
and inventory systems, urban systems, resources
management system.
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System features
System can be just about anything. Besides being an
“assemblage of parts,” the definition of system should
include three other features:
1. Parts of the system are affected by being in the system
and are changed if they leave it;
2. The assemblage of parts does something; and
3. The assemblage is of particular interest
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System …
Parts of the system are affected by being in the system and are changed if
they leave it;
• This feature means that, in systems, the whole is more
than the sum of the parts.
• The idea of the parts affecting the whole and vice versa is
central to systems thinking.
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System …
The assemblage of parts does something

• This feature of systems is that they are dynamic and

exhibit some kind of behavior; they do something.
• The kind of behavior they exhibit depends upon the
particular kind of system at hand.
• System behavior can usually be observed in the outputs
of the system or the way the system converts inputs to
outputs, though the conversion process and the outputs
may be quite obscure.
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System …
The assemblage is of particular interest
• 3rd, systems are conceived by the people looking at them,
which means they exist in the eye (or mind) of the
beholder.
• This is not to say that they fail to exist unless someone is
there to see them, but rather that the conception of a
system can be altered to suit one’s purpose.
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Elements and Subsystems

• Systems can be broken down into smaller and smaller
parts.
• The smallest part of a system is an element.
• Systems also can be broken down into parts which are
themselves systems, called subsystems.
• When it is unnecessary to understand or reveal its inner
workings, a subsystem can simply be thought of as an
element.
• In a project, an element could be a unit of work, a person
or group doing the work, or a component of the end-item
being produced by the project.
 A company portrayed in terms of
systems, subsystems, and elements
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Attributes
• Systems, subsystems, and elements all have
distinguishing characteristics and properties.
• These attributes describe or express the condition of
systems, subsystems, and elements in qualitative or
quantitative terms.
• The attributes of a system may be used to monitor and
measure system behavior and performance.
• The most common project attributes are cost and
progress, both evaluated at particular points in time.
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Environment and Boundary

• When someone, called the “decision maker,”
conceptualizes a system, the term environment is used to
refer to anything that lies beyond the decision maker’s
control yet influences the behavior or outcome of the
system.
• The environment can include the community we live in,
the air we breathe, or the people with whom we associate,
though it is not necessarily any of these.
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Environment …
• A system is separated from its environment by a
boundary.
• In many systems the boundary is somewhat obscure, so it
is difficult to separate the system from the environment.
• To determine what is the environment, the decision maker
asks the questions “Can I do anything about it?” and “Is it
relevant to my situation or objective?”
• If the answer is “no” to the 1st question but “yes” to the 2nd,
then “it” is part of the environment.
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Distinguish a system from its environment

Is it relevant to the system?
Yes No
Can the System
decision maker Yes System The Irrelevant
control it? Environment
No Environment

The “irrelevant environment” includes all things that do not

influence the system and that do not matter. To a project
manager, the planet Jupiter is part of the irrelevant
environment—unless the system being produced is an
interplanetary space probe, in which case it becomes part
of the relevant environment and must be considered in the
design of the system.
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Distinguish …
Hence environment will always refer to the
relevant environment—factors that matter
to and interact with the system in some
way.
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System description
1. Logical system description
Description of a system that focuses on the system function and
purpose without regard to how the system will be physically
implemented

2. Physical system description

Description of a system that focuses on the how the system will
be materially constructed
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System Structure
• Elements and subsystems are linked together by
relationships.
• The form taken by the relationships is referred to as the
structure of the system.
• The functioning and effectiveness of a system is largely
determined by the “appropriateness” of the structure to
the objective or purpose of the system.
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System Structure
• System structure can also be represented as a network,
which shows the elements of a functioning system and the
way they are interrelated or linked.
• In a network, often the links between elements represent
the flow of something.
• Most systems, including projects, can be conceptualized
as both hierarchical and network systems.
• The next Figure shows a project in terms of hierarchy of
tasks and responsibilities.
• Element X represents the entire project and its
management; elements A, B, and C are the major areas
of work and management divisions in the project;
elements a through g are the specific work tasks.
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Ways of conceptualizing project systems

The structure implies that tasks a, b, and c are

all subsumed under management division A,
tasks d and e are under division B, and so on.
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Inputs, Process, Outputs

• Inputs are the raw materials or resources necessary for
the system to operate, produce outputs, and meet
objectives.
• Inputs include controllable factors such as labor, capital, energy,
and facilities, as well as uncontrollable factors such as weather and
natural phenomena.
• Outputs represent the end-result of a system and,
generally, the purpose for which the system exists.
• Process is the means by which the system physically
converts or transforms inputs into outputs.
• An important aspect of system design is to create a process that
effectively produces the desired outputs and meets system
objectives, yet minimizes production of wasteful outputs and
consumption of necessary inputs.
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Feedback
• The system input that originates from the system itself is
called feedback.
• For example, all systems produce information, and usage
of that information for guiding system behavior is
feedback input.
• In a hierarchical structure where systems are divided into
subsystems, the subsystems each have their own inputs,
process, and outputs, which are integrated in some way.
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Constraints and Conflicts

• Systems have constraints or limitations imposed
both from within and by the environment, which
may inhibit their ability to reach objectives.

• Time and money are two universal constraints in

projects:

• Without limitations on one or the other, almost

any objective would be attainable.
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Constraints …
• In human organizations, and especially in projects,
the objectives of subsystems are frequently in
conflict.

• This reduces the chances that any of them or the

overall system objective will ever be achieved.

• Conflictin objectives is especially prevalent

between different levels and functions in project
systems.
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Integration
• For any system to perform effectively, it must be adaptable to
requirements and constraints imposed by the environment.

• For any organization to succeed, it must respond quickly to

changing requirements of customers or to resource limitations
imposed by suppliers or management.

• If it does not, the organization will ultimately fail.

• Designing, implementing, and operating a system that adapts

to changing environmental requirements and achieves
effective, coordinated (so-called “seamless”) functioning of its
elements and subsystems is called systems integration.
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SYSTEMS APPROACH
• The previous sections described systems thinking as a
way to visualize and analyze physical and conceptual
systems

• part of systems thinking is what’s called the systems

approach, which is a way of doing things rather than just
looking at them.

• 3 common ways of applying the systems approach, called

“system methodologies,”: Systems analysis, systems
engineering, and systems management.
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Systems analysis
• Throughout projects there is often a need to apply a
problem-solving approach called “systems analysis;” in
large-scale engineering and developmental projects, the
approach followed is called “systems engineering;” and
most large projects are managed as systems, a process
called “systems management.”
• In contrast to systems analysis, which focuses on
decisions about a system, systems engineering is a way
to actually bring a system into being.
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Systems Approach Framework

• The systems approach is a framework for conceptualizing
problems as systems and for doing things—such as
solving problems and designing systems.

• The systems approach formally acknowledges that the

behavior of any one element may affect other elements
and no single element can perform effectively without help
from the others.

• This recognition of interdependency and cause-effect

among elements is what most distinguishes the systems
approach.
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Systems …
• Actions that focus exclusively on just parts of the system,
however, are likely to be suboptimal because they
disregard the negative repercussions on other parts.

• For example, air pollution can be reduced by enacting

laws, but such laws might restrict or prohibit industry and
damage regional economies.

• No problem can be solved in isolation. Every problem is

inextricably united to the environment, and attempts to
solve it may cause other, more intractable problems.
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Orderly Way of Appraisal

• Besides being a way of looking at problems, the systems
approach is a methodology for solving problems and
managing systems.

• By its holistic nature, it avoids tackling problems narrowly,

head-on.

• It says, “Let’s stand back and look at this situation

from all angles.”
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Orderly …
The problem solver does this by thinking about the overall
system, keeping in mind:-
1. The objectives and the performance measures of the
whole system.
2. The environment and constraints of the system.
3. The resources of the system.
4. The elements of the system, their functions, goals,
attributes, and performance measures.
5. The management of the system.
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Systems engineering process

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System planning
• First, the place to start planning for a system is
with the overall objective of the system.

• Costly mistakes can be made if the true objective

of the system is vague or misconstrued.

• The systems approach mandates hardheaded

thinking about the real objective of the system
and real ways to measure it.
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System …
• Project management uses this kind of thinking: It begins with the
mission or objective of the system and, thereafter, all subsequent
work is organized and directed to achieve that objective.

• The stated objective must be precise and measurable in terms of

specific performance criteria (the system requirements).

• Regardless of how intangible the objective—goodwill, quality of life,

happiness, or even beauty—performance measures must be
established.

• For system performance to be realistically assessed, performance

measures should reflect the many relevant consequences of the
system.
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Elements of Systems Analysis

• Systems analysis uses “modeling” to help decision
makers understand the system and to measure
alternatives against objectives.

• A model is a simplified representation of the world; it

abstracts the essential features of the system under study.

• It may be a physical model, mathematical formulation,

computer simulation, or simple checklist.
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Elements …
• Engineers use model airplanes in wind tunnel tests, for
instance, to try out design alternatives and to measure the
effect of different design parameters on performance.

• A good model allows the analyst to ask “what if” questions

and to explore the effects of changing various inputs.

• This exploration is called sensitivity analysis.

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Elements …
• Most models and analytical procedures in systems
analysis are quantitative, but this by no means should
imply that they are intended to replace qualitative
analysis.

• Indeed, good systems analysis employs both qualitative

and quantitative methods.

• The value of systems analysis is that it explicitly takes into

consideration all things that can be quantified, thus
permitting decision makers to use judgment on those
factors that can only be addressed qualitatively.
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Elements and process of systems analysis

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(SDLC)
Systems Development Life Cycle
• System development life cycle is an organizational
process of developing and maintaining systems.

• It helps in establishing a system project plan, because it

gives overall list of processes and sub-processes required
for developing a system.

• It also provides overall framework for managing systems

development process
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(SDLC)
Systems Development Life Cycle
Two main approaches to SDLC
1. Predictive approach – assumes project can be
planned out in advance

2. Adaptive approach – more flexible, assumes

project cannot be planned out in advance
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(SDLC)
Systems Development Life Cycle
Following are the different phases of system development
life cycle:
• Planning
• Preliminary investigation
• Feasibility study
• Analysis
• Design
• Development
• Implementation
• Maintenance/Support
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Planning-Preliminary investigation
System preliminary investigation is the first stage of system
development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what
actually the physical system is?

In practice, the preliminary investigation is done in the

phases.
• identifying the range of the system.
• identification of user’s requirement and the limitations and
problems of the present system are studied.
• A system proposal is prepared.

The proposed system contains the findings of the present

system and recommendations to overcome the limitations
and problems of the present system in the light of the
user’s requirements.
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Planning-Feasibility study
The feasibility (possibility) study is basically the test of the
proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting
user’s requirements, effective use of resources and cost
effectiveness.

The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the

problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of
feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with
greater accuracy.

Some of the information required in feasibility studies may

be collected from consumers, industrial sources,
consultants, researchers, etc.
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Activities of Planning Phase of SDLC

1. Define business problem and scope

2. Produce detailed project schedule

3. Confirm project feasibility

Economic, organizational, technical, resource,

and schedule
4. Staff the project (resource management)

5. Launch project  official announcement

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Analysis
Analysis involved a detailed study of the current system, leading to
specifications of a new system.

Analysis is a detailed study of various operations performed by a

system and their relationships within and outside the system.

During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision

points and business handled by the present system.

Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used

for system analysis.

Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact

boundary of the new system under consideration:
1.Keeping in view the problems and new requirements
2.Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
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Activities of Analysis Phase of SDLC

1. Gather information to learn problem domain

2. Define system requirements

3. Build prototypes for discovery of requirements

4. Prioritize requirements

5. Generate and evaluate alternatives

6. Review recommendations with management

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Design
Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new
system, the new system must be designed. it is a most crucial phase
in the development of a system.

Normally, the design proceeds in two stages :

Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design,
the features of the new system are specified. The costs of
implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are
estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to
the detailed design stage.

Structure design: At this stage, the design of the system becomes

more structured. Input, output and processing specifications are
drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the platform in which the new
system will run are also decided.
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Design
• Convert recommended solution to system
specifications

• Logicaldesign: functional features described

independently of computer platform

• Physical design: logical specifications

transformed to technology-specific details
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Activities of Design Phase of SDLC

1. Design and integrate the network

2. Design the application architecture

3. Design the user interfaces

4. Design the system interfaces

5. Design and integrate the database

6. Prototype for design details

7. Design and integrate system controls

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Implementation
After having the user acceptance of the new system
developed, the implementation phase begins.

Implementation is the stage of a project during which

theory is turned into practice.

After developing the system, training of the users starts.

Main topics of such type of training are:
 How to execute the package
 How to enter the data
 How to process the data (processing details)
 How to take out the reports
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Activities of Implementation Phase of SDLC

1. Construct system components

2. Verify and test
3. Convert data
4. Train users and document the system
5. Install the system in practice
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Testing
When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the
users are called with their own actual data so that the
system could be shown running as per their requirements.
• Working
• Meets original requirements
• Benefits
• Meets budget
• Improvements
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Maintenance/Support
• Systematical repair, review and improvement of a system
is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its
working life and to tune the system to any variations in its
working environment.

• It has been seen that there are always some errors found
in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also
means the review of the system from time to time.
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Maintenance/support
The review of the system is done for:
• knowing the full capabilities of the system.

• studying the system performance.

• investigating the required changes or the additional

requirements.

• If a major change to a system is needed, a new project

may have to be set up to carry out the changes. The new
project will then proceed through all the above SDLC
phases.
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Activities of maintenance/Support Phase of

SDLC
• Maintain system
• Small patches, repairs, and updates

• Enhance system
• Small upgrades or enhancements to expand system capabilities
• Larger enhancements may require separate development project

• Support users
• Help desk and/or support team
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QUESTIONS?
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YOU!