Research Methods

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Psychology is a Science

Scientific Method Data Collection and Analysis

Psychology employs a systematic and empirical approach to Psychologists design experiments, conduct surveys, and
study human behavior and mental processes. It involves a observe behavior to gather data that can be analyzed to draw
structured method of collecting data to test predictions. conclusions and test hypotheses.
What is Research?
Research is a systematic process of inquiry that involves
collecting and analyzing information to answer a question
or test a hypothesis. It is a scientific method that provides
insights and evidence to support or refute claims.

Collecting data is a fundamental part of research. Data can

be collected through various methods, such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or experiments.
Steps of the Research Process
The research process is a systematic approach to understanding the world around us. It involves a series of steps that
guide researchers in asking questions, gathering data, and drawing conclusions.

Step I: Develop a research question

1 Start with a clear question that you want to answer.

Step II: Generate research hypothesis

2
Propose a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Step III: Form operational definitions

3
Define key terms and concepts in a measurable way.

Step IV: Choose a research design

4
Select the most appropriate method for collecting and analyzing data.

Step V: Evaluate the ethics of your research design

5
Ensure that the research is conducted ethically and responsibly.

Once you have a clear research question, you can begin to generate a testable hypothesis.
This hypothesis will guide your research and help you to determine what data you need to collect.
After you have collected and analyzed your data, you can draw conclusions about your research question.
Research Methods

Survey Method Observational Method

Surveys gather information using questionnaires Researchers observe and record behaviors in a
or interviews to collect data from a large sample natural or controlled setting to gain insights into
of participants. patterns of behavior.

Correlational Method Experimental Method

This method examines the relationship between Experiments are designed to establish causal
two or more variables to determine whether they relationships between variables by manipulating
are correlated, but not causal. independent variables and measuring their
effects on dependent variables.
Survey Method
1 1. Assessing Opinions
Survey research is a powerful tool for gathering data on people's thoughts,
opinions, and feelings.

2 2. Series of Questions
Surveys involve asking participants a series of questions or having them
respond to statements about a specific topic.

3 3. Descriptive Method
The survey method is considered descriptive, as it aims to capture and describe
the characteristics of a population.

4 4. Various Approaches
Survey research encompasses various approaches, including mail, telephone,
personal, and internet surveys.
Mail Survey
Mail surveys are a common method for collecting data. They consist of
questionnaires sent through the mail. These surveys are also called self-
administered questionnaires. Mail surveys have some advantages,
including their low cost and ability to reach a wide audience.

Participants can complete surveys at their convenience. Mail surveys are

only possible if you have the names and addresses of the target
population. However, mail surveys have disadvantages, including low
response rates and difficulties obtaining detailed information or
conducting probing follow-ups.
Telephone Interview
Telephone interviews are becoming increasingly popular
for brief surveys.
Advantages include rapid information gathering, high
response rates, and the ability to ask follow-up
questions.
Telephone interviews also eliminate the need for field staff.

However, they have disadvantages, such as the inability

to observe body language and their relatively high cost.
Personal Interviews

Face-to-Face Interaction Opportunity to Probe

Personal interviews allow for direct interaction between the Interviewers can ask follow-up questions and clarify
interviewer and the respondent, fostering a more personal responses, leading to deeper insights and a more thorough
and detailed exchange of information. understanding of the subject.
Electronic Surveys
Electronic surveys are interviews in which the interviewees enter their
own answers directly into a computer. Online surveys are a simple,
inexpensive way to collect evidence and gather customer opinions and
preferences.

Electronic surveys are efficient and low cost. Researchers can obtain
survey responses from a large number of people using online
questionnaires, which are paperless and convenient for responders.

Electronic surveys allow researchers to access a diverse sample of people,

but it can be difficult to sample people effectively.

Researchers using electronic surveys lack control over the environment in

which people complete the survey. This can lead to response and
selection biases.
Scientific Observation
Scientific observation is made under precisely defined
conditions in a systematic and objective manner with
carefully record keeping.

The primary goal of observation is to describe behavior fully

and accurately.
Types of Observations
Observation with Intervention Observation without Intervention

This type of observation involves the researcher actively In this type of observation, the researcher acts as a passive
manipulating or influencing the environment or observer, simply recording behavior as it naturally occurs.
participants. They may introduce a specific stimulus or They do not attempt to manipulate the situation or interact
create a particular situation to observe the effects on with participants.
behavior.
Observation with
Intervention
Structured Observation
Researchers create a situation where a behavior can occur. They set
up a specific scenario to see how people might react.

Example
Researchers might stage a scenario where someone is accidentally
bumped into, and observe the reactions of participants. They can
then analyze the different ways people respond in this controlled
setting.
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation is a research method where researchers observe
behavior in its natural setting without intervention.

This type of observation is unobtrusive and allows researchers to see how

individuals behave in their typical environment.

For example, a researcher might observe children interacting on a

playground or adults in a coffee shop.
Correlational Method
Relationship between Variables Types of Correlations

The correlational method examines how two or more Positive correlations indicate that as one variable increases,
variables are related. It determines the strength and the other also increases. For example, as study time
direction of the relationship. increases, test scores tend to improve.

Correlations range from -1 to +1. A correlation of +1 Negative correlations indicate that as one variable increases,
represents a perfect positive correlation, while -1 indicates a the other decreases. For example, as anxiety levels rise,
perfect negative correlation. performance on a task may decline.
Experimental Method

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

The experimenter manipulates this variable to This variable is measured to see if it changes as
observe its effect on the dependent variable. a result of manipulating the independent
variable.

Control Group Experimental Group

Participants in this group do not receive the Participants in this group receive the treatment
treatment or manipulation of the independent or manipulation of the independent variable.
variable, serving as a baseline for comparison.
Example of Experimental Method

Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher. The dependent variable is measured by the researcher.
Longitudinal Method
Repeated Observations
This method involves observing a group of participants over an extended
period of time. The goal is to track changes in behaviors, attitudes, or other
variables.

Developmental Research
Longitudinal studies are particularly useful for examining how individuals
change and develop over time. They are often used in developmental
psychology.

Data Collection
Data can be collected using various methods such as interviews, surveys, or
observations. Researchers can track patterns and trends over time.
Clinical Method or Case Study Methods

1 1. Intensive Description and Analysis 2 2. Source of Hypothesis

The clinical method involves a deep dive into the Case studies are a valuable source of information and
experiences and behaviors of a single individual or a inspiration for formulating new hypotheses about
small group. It provides a detailed and in-depth normal and abnormal behavior. They can highlight
understanding of a particular case. unique patterns and raise new questions for further
investigation.

3 3. Multifaceted Approach 4 4. Suicide Investigation Example

The method often involves a combination of data In the investigation of a suicide case, researchers may
collection techniques, including interviews, use the clinical method to gather detailed information
observations, record reviews, and psychological from family members, healthcare providers, and
testing, to provide a comprehensive understanding of relevant records to understand the factors
the individual. contributing to the suicide.
Research Ethics
Research ethics are a set of principles that guide researchers
in conducting ethical research. These principles ensure that
research is conducted in a responsible and humane manner.

Researchers must consider the well-being of their

participants and avoid causing them any harm. They should
also protect the privacy and confidentiality of their
participants.
Five Ethical Principles

Protection from Harm Right to Privacy Deception Informed Consent

Participants should be The privacy of participants Deception is only acceptable Participants must be fully
protected from physical or must be respected. when it is necessary to the informed about the nature of
psychological harm. Researchers should obtain research and there are no the research, the risks
Researchers must ensure that informed consent from other acceptable alternatives. involved, and their rights
the risks to participants are participants before collecting Participants must be fully before they agree to
minimized and outweighed by any personal information. Data debriefed after the study and participate. This information
the potential benefits of the should be kept confidential any potential harm must be should be presented in a clear
research. and not shared without the addressed. and understandable manner.
participants' permission.

Debriefing
Participants should be fully debriefed after the
study. This includes providing them with
information about the true nature of the research
and any deception that was used. Participants
should also be given the opportunity to ask
questions and have their concerns addressed.
Informed Consent

Informed Consent
Informed consent is an agreement to participate in a research study, where participants fully understand the nature of the
experiment and its potential risks and implications.
Confidentiality
Participants should remain anonymous so that data cannot be identified
as theirs.

Names should be withheld when data is reported.

Information about a person acquired during a study must be kept

confidential and not made available to others without the research
participant's consent.
Minimal Risk

Minimal Risk
In research, the anticipated risks should be no greater than those encountered in daily life. This principle protects participants
from physical harm, but psychological stress is more complex.
Deception
Social psychological research often involves misleading
participants about the true purpose of a study or the events
that transpire. Participants might be told the study is about
one thing but actually be about another. This is done to
study people's natural behavior.

It's important to note that not all research in social

psychology involves deception. Many studies use non-
deceptive methods.
Debriefing
When deception is used in a study, the post-experimental interview, called
the debriefing session, is crucial. Debriefing is the process of explaining to
participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study
and exactly what transpired.

Researchers also attempt to undo and alleviate any discomfort

participants might have experienced. Debriefing is vital because it
provides participants with the opportunity to understand and learn about
the research.
The Monster Study (1939)
Unethical Experiment Harmful Effects Consequences
The Monster Study is a classic example The study divided the orphans into The study continued for six months and
of an unethical psychological groups, one receiving positive caused lasting harm to some of the
experiment on humans. The reinforcement and the other ridicule for children. The university paid a
researchers, Wendell Johnson and Mary any speech problems. The ridicule settlement to the victims of the study in
Tudor, conducted a study about group experienced lasting psychological 2007, acknowledging the lasting
stuttering on 22 orphans. damage, including the development of damage caused.
stuttering.
Little Albert (1920)
Background Procedure

John Watson, a behaviorist, believed that behaviors are Albert was exposed to a rat, which didn't cause fear. Then,
learned. He used "Little Albert" to test his hypothesis. Watson paired the rat with a loud noise, making Albert
Watson wanted to show that fear could be conditioned in a afraid of the rat. Albert's fear was conditioned.
human.
Radioactive Oatmeal
1 1. Experiment 2 2. Goal
In the 1950s, over 100 boys living in an orphanage were fed The goal of the experiment was to prove that the nutrients in
Quaker Oats with radioactive iron and calcium. Quaker oatmeal travel throughout the body.

3 3. Ethical Concerns 4 4. Lasting Impact

Feeding children radioactive substances without their This unethical experiment highlights the need for rigorous
consent is a serious breach of ethical principles. ethical oversight in all research involving human participants.
Other Unethical Experiments

Breaking Bones Cancer Cells Hepatitis A Russian Sleep

Experiment
Nazi doctors deliberately broke Jewish patients were injected Children at Willowbrook State
bones to see how many times with live cancer cells without School were intentionally In this experiment, researchers
they could be broken before their knowledge or consent. The exposed to the Hepatitis A virus, kept subjects awake for several
healing failed. This experiment experiment was conducted in a so that researchers could develop days to study the effects of sleep
was designed to test the limits of hospital in New York City in 1963. a vaccine. deprivation. This experiment was
human endurance. conducted in the Soviet Union in
the 1940s.
Questions?
We have reviewed research methods, ethics, and important
considerations for conducting psychological research. If you
have any questions, feel free to ask! We are here to help you
understand these concepts and apply them to your own
research projects.

Remember, conducting ethical and rigorous research is

essential for advancing our understanding of human
behavior and well-being. We encourage you to engage in
further learning and exploration in this fascinating field.