GPB 2201 : Genetics and Cytogenetics

Topic 13
Numerical Changes of Chromosomes
meiotic behavior and cytogenetic consequence

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding

Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh
 Introduction

• Each species is characterized by a particular chromosome

complement or sets of genome

• Sometimes variation occurs in chromosome number that

termed as numerical changes of chromosome
 The n vs x Concept

• n: Gametic number of chromosomes

• 2n: Zygotic or somatic number of chromosomes
• x: Basic number of chromosomes, with respect to a
common ancestral species i.e. x is the "original" set
of chromosomes, from which contemporary species
are derived
• Rice (Oryza sativa L.): 2n=2x=24, n=12, x=12
• Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): 2n=6x=42, n=21, x=7
 Types of numerical changes of
Chromosome

1. Euploid: Individual with one complete

chromosome set or with multiples of the basic
number of chromosomes characteristic of the
species

2. Aneuploid: Individual with one or more whole

chromosomes in addition to the euploid complement
or missing from the euploid complement
 Numerical Changes of Chromosomes
Euploid Aneuploid

Monoploid Diploid (2n=2x) Polyploid (2n=3x, 2n=4x,

(2n=x) 2n=5x, 2n=6x)
Autopolyploid Allopolyploid

Hypoploid Hyperploid
Monosomic (2n-1) Trisomic (2n+1)
Double Monosomic (2n-1-1) Double Trisomic (2n+1+1)

Nullisomic (2n-2) Tetrasomic (2n+2)

Double Nullisomic (2n-2-2) Double Tetrasomic (2n+2+2)
 Haploids (n)
• An individual with gametic chromosome number

• Origin:
- From unfertilized egg (Parthenogenesis)
- From synergid cell or antipodal cell
- Through anther or pollen culture
- Through pollen culture
- Through ovule culture
- From distant hybridization
 Production of Haploid Barley
Hordeum vulgare X Hordeum bulbosum
(2n=14, VV) (2n=14, BB)

Zygote (2n=14, VB)

Chromosome elimination

Young Embryo
Embryo culture
Chromosome elimination

Haploid plant of H. vulgare

Colchicine
(Chromosome doubling)
Double haploid plants of Barley (H. vulgare)
 Features of Haploids
• Haploids are highly sterile

• Plants are usually weak and small sized

• Leaves are generally small

• Plants are of low viability

• Used for rapid production of homozygous diploid lines

• Homozygous recombinant lines can be produced

 Meiotic Behaviour of Haploids
• Chromosome remain univalent due to absence of
homologous partner
• Univalents are unable to arrange themselves at definite
equatorial plate at metaphase-1
• At anaphase-I, the distribution of univalents will be random
i.e. some of the univalent may go to one pole and some of
the other pole
• Formed nuclei, lack of one or more chromosomes produce
non-functional gametes
• Occasionally all chromosomes may go to the same pole to
produce functional gametes
 Polyploid
• Individual having more than two genomes. It may be
triploid (2n=3x), tetraploid (2n=4x), pentaploid (2n=5x),
hexaploid (2n=6x) and so on.

• Origin
– Fertilization between different levels of polyploids
– Fertilization of an egg with more than one male gametes
– Failure of meiosis that produces a diploid instead of
haploid
– Somatic doubling
List of major crops with ploidy level
Common Name Ploidy Name
Maize 2x = 20 Diploid
Wheat 6x = 42 Hexaploid
Rice 2x = 24 Diploid
Potato 4x = 48 Tetraploid
Soybean 2x = 40 Diploid
Barley 2x = 14 Diploid
Tomato 2x = 24 Diploid
Banana 3x = 33 Triploid
Watermelon 2x = 22 Diploid
Sugarcane 8x = 80 Octaploid
 Types of Polyploids
1. Autopolyploid
Individuals contain more than two identical genomic sets,
which are derived by self-duplication of parental genomic sets.
* Autotriploid
* Autotetraploid
* Autopentaploid and so on

2. Allopolyploid
Individuals with multiple genomes derived from two or more
distinct species by hybridization.
* Allotriploid
* Allotetraploid
* Allopentaploid and so on
 Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological
Consequences of Autotriploids
• Autotriploid exhibits higher degrees of meiotic
abnormalities
• In autotriploid there are three sets of homologous
chromosomes
• If these three sets are normally paired, a trivalent is formed
• Basic principles of chromosome paring are
- Only homologous chromosome can pair
- Pairing partner may be changed
- At any one point only two homologous segments
can
pair
 Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological
Consequences of Autotriploids (Contd.)
• Following these pairing principles the three chromosomes
may associate as:
- All three univalent
- One bivalent and one univalent
- One trivalent
• The meiotic configuration (zygotene to metaphase-I) of
trivalent depends on the
- Pairing partner
- Number of chaismata
- Position of chaismata
- Terminalization of chaismata
Possible trivalent configuration at diakinesis in an autotriploid
(Based on pachytene chromosome pairing and crossing over)

Pairing and crossing over at Configurations at

pachytene stage diakinesis
 Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological Consequences of
Autotriploids (Contd.)
The distribution of chromosome of a trivalent at anaphase-I depends
on the co-orientation of the centromere at metaphase-I

or or

Linear
Distribution
will be 1:1,
one remain Convergent Indifferent
Distribution will be 2:1 Distribution will be 1:1 or 2:1
laggard
• Most of the gametes are imbalanced and inviable
• Autotriploids have high degrees of sterility
 Advantages of Autotripolids
• Autotriploids are more vigorous and more leafy than normal diploids

• To produce seedless fruit (eg. seedless water melon, guava and

banana)

• Triploid sugarbeet produce larger shoots and more sugar content per
unit area than diploid

• Triploid clone of tea is more tolerant to drought than available diploid

cultivar

• Triploid apple possess high ascorbic acid

Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological Consequences of
Autotetraploids
• The meiotic behavior of autotetraploid may be normal or
abnormal
• Autotetraploids have four sets of chromosomes
• If they normally paired, tetravalent is formed
• According to pairing principles these four chromosomes
may associate as-
* 4-univalents
* 2-bivalents
* 1 bivalent and 2 univalent
* 1 trivalent and 1univalent
* 1 quadrivalent/tetravalent
Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological Consequences of
Autotetraploids (Contd.)
• The distribution of chromosomes of a tetravalent at
anaphase-I depends on co-orientation of centromere at
metaphase-I:
* Linear
* Convergent
* Indifferent
* Parallel

• Autotetraploids have certain degree of sterility but less

than autotriploid
 Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological Consequences of
Autotetraploids (Contd.)

Convergent
Distribution
Linear
will be 2:2
Distribution will be 1:1 Indifferent
giving diploid
leaving two laggard Distribution will be 1:1 or 2:1 or 3:1
gamete
chromosome producing nonfunctional gamete
Meiotic Behaviour and Cytological Consequences of
Autotetraploids (Contd.)

Parallel
Distribution
will be 2:2
giving diploid
gamete
 Uses/Advantages of Autotetraploid
• They usually show greater adaptability and sometimes
marked diseases resistance
• They are commonly more viable than corresponding
diploids
• Some are large and more deeply coloured than diploids
• Sometimes they bear large seeds and fruits
• There growth is very high
• Flowers are larger than diploids
• High content of vitamin C has been reported
 Trisomics
• An organism containing two complete genomes plus
one extra chromosome is termed as triosomic (2n+1).

• Types of trisomics:
Primary The extra chromosome is 1 1 1
Trisomic homolouge of a standard
chromosome
2 2 2
Secondary The extra chromosome has 1 1 1 1 1 2
Trisomic two identical arms or
2 2 1 2 2 2
Tertiary The extra chromosome is
Trisomic the result of reciprocal 1 1 1 3 3
translocation
2 2 4 2 4
Origin and Sources of Primary Triosomics
• Unequal disjunction either due to non-congression or
due to non-disjunction may lead to formation of
(n+1), (n-1) gametes
• Asynapsisor Desynapsis–Failure of meiotic pairing
produces variable no. of univalents
• Different types of polyploids
• Tetrasomics and other aneuploids
• Haploids with adequate fertility
 Production of Triosomics
• Primary trisomics have been isolated from the progeny of
haploids of Triticum aestivum, Nicotiana tabacum,etc.
• There are different methods:
Production of Triosomics (Contd.)
 Reference

1) Cytogenetics by Gupta P.K

2) Introduction to Genetics and Cytogenetics by

H.P.Riley

3) Genetics by Verma and Agarwal

4) Cytogenetics Evolution and Plant Breeding by

Shukla and Chandal