Wireless LANs

CS44 Data Communications

Dr. Shilpa Chaudhari

Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
Ramaiah Institute of Technology Bangalore
Outline
• INTRODUCTION
◦ Architectural Comparison
◦ Characteristics
◦ Access Control
• IEEE 802.11 PROJECT
◦ Architecture
◦ MAC Sublayer
◦ Addressing Mechanism
◦ Physical Layer
• BLUETOOTH
◦ Architecture
◦ Bluetooth Layers

2
LAN World
 LANs provide connectivity for interconnecting computing
resources at the local levels of an organization
 Wired LANs
Limitations because of physical, hard-wired
infrastructure
 Wireless LANs provide
Flexibility
Portability
Mobility
Ease of Installation

3
Wireless LAN
Applications
Medical Professionals
Education
Temporary Situations
Airlines
Security Staff
Emergency Centers

4
Introduction
• Two types of wireless LANs
◦ wireless LAN defined by the IEEE 802.11 project (sometimes called wireless
Ethernet)
◦ Personal wireless LAN, Bluetooth, that is sometimes called personal area
network or PAN
• Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies
• The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is
increasing everywhere
• Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office
buildings, and in many public areas
• Lets compare the architecture of wired and wireless LANs to give
some idea of what we need to look for when we study wireless LANs

5
 Architectural Comparison
Comparison Wired LAN Wireless LAN
Parameter
Medium use wires to connect hosts; communication Uses air, the signal is generally broadcast;
between the hosts is pointto- communication between the hosts sharing the
point and full-duplex same medium (multiple access); very rare a point-
to-point communication using a very limited
bandwidth and two-directional antennas
Hosts always connected to its network at a point with not physically connected to the network; it can
a fixed link-layer address related to its network move freely and can use the services provided by
interface card (NIC); can move from one point in the network
the Internet to another point where link-layer
address remains the same, but its network-layer
address will change

Needs to be physically connected

to the Internet
Isolated LANs a set of hosts connected via a link-layer switch a set of hosts that communicate freely with each
other -ad hoc network. The concept of a link-layer
switch does not exist in wireless LANs
Connection to using a router With or without
Other access point
Networks
Or switch

6
Moving between wired/wireless
Environments
• A wired LAN or a wireless LAN operates only in the lower
two layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite
• To move from the wired environment to a wireless
environment
◦ change the network interface cards designed for wired
environments to the ones designed for wireless environments
◦ replace the link-layer switch with an access point
◦ In this change, the link-layer addresses will change (because of changing NICs), but the
network-layer addresses (IP addresses) will remain the same

7
 Characteristics of wireless LANs
• Several characteristics of wireless LANs that either do not
apply to wired LANs or the existence of which is negligible
and can be ignored
characteristic Description
Attenuation strength of electromagnetic signals decreases rapidly because the signal disperses in
all directions; only a small portion of it reaches the receiver
Interference a receiver may receive signals not only from the intended sender, but also from other
senders if they are using the same frequency band
Multipath signal less recognizable - A receiver may receive more than one signal from the same
Propagation sender because electromagnetic waves can be reflected back from obstacles such as
walls, the ground, or objects at different phases (because they travel different paths)
Error Error level as the measurement of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that measures the ratio
of good stuff to bad stuff (signal to noise). High SNR means the signal is stronger than
the noise (unwanted signal) - may be able to convert the signal to actual data. Low
SNR means the signal is corrupted by the noise and the data cannot be recovered

8
Access Control
• How a wireless host can get access to the shared medium
(air)?
• Standard Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD algorithm
◦ each host contends to access the medium and sends its frame if it
finds the medium idle
◦ If a collision occurs, it is detected and the frame is sent again
◦ Collision detection in CSMA/CD serves two purposes
◦ If a collision is detected, it means that the frame has not been received and needs to
be resent
◦ If a collision is not detected, it is a kind of acknowledgment that the frame was
received.

9
Access Control
• The CSMA/CD algorithm does not work in wireless LANs
for three reasons:
1. Wireless hosts do not have enough power to send and
receive at the same time to detect a collision
◦ Collision detection - a host needs to send the frame and receive
the collision signal at the same time
2. The distance between stations can be great - Signal fading
could prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision
at the other end

10
 Access Control
3. The hidden station problem in which a station may not be aware of
another station’s transmission due to some obstacles or range
problems, collision may occur but not be detected
◦ prevents collision detection
◦ every station has transmission range in which they hear any signal
transmitted by other station within it
Assume that station B is sending data to station A
In the middle of this transmission, station C also has data to
send to station A
However, station C is out of B’s range and transmissions from B
cannot reach C and thinks the medium is free - Station C
sends its data to A, which results in a collision at A because
this station is receiving data from both B and C
stations B and C are hidden from each other with respect to A

Hidden stations can reduce the capacity of the network because of the possibility of collision
Solution: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) for wireless LANs

11
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard
In response to lacking standards, IEEE developed the
first internationally recognized wireless LAN standard –
IEEE 802.11
IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven years of work
Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical and Data Link
Layers.
• wireless Ethernet or WiFi (short for wireless fidelity) or wireless
LAN
◦ WiFi Alliance is a global, nonprofit industry association of more than
300 member companies devoted to promoting the growth of wireless
LANs

12
IEEE 802 Standards Working
Groups

The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with  are
hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.
13
Benefits of 802.11 Standard
Appliance Interoperability
Fast Product Development
Stable Future Migration
Price Reductions
The 802.11 standard takes into account the following
significant differences between wireless and wired LANs:
Power Management
Security
Bandwidth

14
IEEE 802.11 Terminology
Access point (AP): A station that provides access to the DS.
Basic service set :
a set is of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station,
known as the access point (AP).
Distribution system (DS): A system used to interconnect a set
of BSSs to create an ESS.
DS is implementation-independent. It can be a wired 802.3 Ethernet LAN, 802.4
token bus, 802.5 token ring or another 802.11 medium.

Extended service set (ESS):Two or more BSS interconnected

by DS
extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary
The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP
stations that are part of a wired LAN.

15
 Categories of Wireless
Networks
• Base Station :: all communication through an access point
{note hub topology}. Other nodes can be fixed or mobile.
◦ Infrastructure Wireless :: base station network is connected to the
wired Internet.
• Ad hoc Wireless :: wireless nodes communicate directly
with one another.
◦ MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) :: ad hoc nodes are mobile.

(a) Wireless networking with a base station. (b) Ad hoc networking.

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Architecture
• The standard defines two kinds of services:
◦ the basic service set (BSS)
◦ building blocks of a wireless LAN
◦ made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station, known as the access
point (AP)
◦ the extended service set (ESS)
◦ made up of two or more BSSs with Aps

• Three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:

◦ no-transition - either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS
◦ BSS-transition mobility - move from one BSS to another, but the movement is
confined inside one ESS
◦ ESS-transition mobility - move from one ESS to another
• IEEE 802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous
during the move

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WLAN Topology - Ad-Hoc
Network
• The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and
cannot send data to other BSSs
• They can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS

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WLAN Topology Infrastructure
• EX: cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell
and each AP to be a base station.

19
Basic service sets (BSSs)
• Building blocks of a wireless LAN
• Made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station, known as the access
point (AP)
• The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs - an ad hoc
architecture
◦ stations can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS
• A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure BSS.

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Distribution of Messages
Distribution service (DS) - connects the APs in the BSSs
Used to exchange MAC frames from station in one BSS to station in another
BSS

• When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate without the use of
an AP
◦ uses two types of stations:
◦ mobile - normal stations inside a BSS
◦ Stationary - AP stations that are part of a wired LAN

• A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time

21
IEEE 802.11 Medium Access
Control
MAC layer covers three functional areas:
Reliable data delivery
Access control
Security
IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers:
• distributed coordination function (DCF)
• point coordination function (PCF)

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MAC Sublayer
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
Distributed access protocol
Contention-Based
Makes use of CSMA/CA rather than CSMA/CD for the following
reasons:
Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMA/CD for three reasons:
1. For collision detection a station must be able to send data and receive collision signals at the same time( costly stations and
increased bandwidth requirements).
2. Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem.
3. The distance between stations may result in Signal fading which prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision at the other
end.

Suited for ad hoc network and ordinary asynchronous traffic

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Distributed Coordination Function
(DCF)
• DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method
Sender • Frame Exchange Time Line: exchange of
data and control frames in time

Receiver
distributed interframe space (DIFS)

request to send (RTS) Receive RTS

Wait SIFS short interframe space (SIFS)

clear to send (CTS) indicates
Sends CTS that the destination station is
ready to receive data

Receive frame

Wait SIFS
Acknowledgment to show that
Sends ACK the frame has been received

Acknowledgment is needed because the station does not have any

means to check for the successful arrival of its data at the destination
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Collision avoidance CSMAICA
How do other stations defer sending their data if one station acquires
access? Or how is the collision avoidance aspect of this protocol
accomplished?
• Using network allocation vector (NAV) feature to avoid collision.
◦ RTS frame includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy the channel.
◦ stations affected by this transmission create a timer called (NAV) = duration of time in RTS
◦ the network allocation vector (NAV) shows the time must pass before these stations allowed to
check the channel for idleness.
• there is no mechanism for collision detection, if the sender has not received a CTS
frame from the receiver, assumes there has been a collision ,the sender tries again
• Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations
start their NAV
• Each station, before sensing the physical medium to see if it is idle, first checks its
NAV to see if it has expired

25
Network Allocation
Vector

26
Collision During
Handshaking
What happens if there is a collision during the time when
RTS or CTS control frames are in transition, often called the
handshaking period?
• Two or more stations may try to send RTS frames at the
same time - may collide
• no mechanism for collision detection, the sender assumes
there has been a collision if it has not received a CTS frame
from the receiver
• The backoff strategy is employed, and the sender tries
again

27
Hidden-Station Problem
• The solution to the hidden station problem is the use of the handshake
frames (RTS and CTS)
• RTS message from A reaches B, but not C
• Both B and C are within the range, the CTS message, which contains the
duration of data transmission from B to A, reaches C
• Station C knows that some hidden station is using the channel and refrains
from transmitting until that duration is over

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MAC Sublayer
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
an optional access method on top of DCF
Implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc
network)
mostly for time-sensitive transmission services like voice or
multimedia
a centralized, contention-free polling access method
The AP performs polling stations one after another, sending any
data they have to the AP.

29
MAC Sublayer
• To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has
been defined:
 SIFS - Short Inter Frame Spacing
 Used for immediate response actions e.g ACK, CTS
 PIFS - Point Inter Frame Spacing
 PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS.

• if, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an AP wants
to use PCF, the AP has priority.
• Repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free
(PCF) and contention-based (DCF) traffic to allow DCF accessing the
media.

30
 Polling in Repetition interval

• used whenever the primary device • Used by the primary device to solicit transmissions
has something to send. from the secondary devices
• Primary does not know whether • When the primary is ready to receive data, it must ask
the target device is prepared to (poll) each device in turn if it has anything to send
receive • When the first secondary is approached, it responds
• Primary alert the secondary about either with a AK frame if it has nothing to send or with
the upcoming transmission and data if it does
wait for an acknowledgment of the • If the response is negative (a NAK frame), then the
secondary’s ready status using primary polls the next secondary in the same manner
select (SEL) frame until it finds one with data to send
• One field of SEL includes the • When the response is positive (a data frame), the
address of the intended secondary primary reads the frame and returns an
acknowledgment (ACK frame), verifying its receipt 31
 MAC Sublayer - Repetition
interval

1. starts with B
3. PC (point controller) can send a poll
frame, receive data, send an ACK, receive
an ACK, or do any combination of these
4. PC sends a CF end (contention-
free end) frame to allow the
contention-based stations to use the
medium
2. When the stations hear the beacon
frame, they start their NAV for the
duration of the contention-free period
of the repetition interval

32
Fragmentation
• The wireless environment is very noisy.
• corrupt frame has to be retransmitted.
• Fragmentation is recommended.
◦ the division of a large frame into smaller ones.
• It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large
one.

33
 MAC Frame Format
• The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields
duration of the Sequence control (SC) - first Frame body -
four address fields - information
transmission that is used meaning of each address four bits define the
to set the value of NAV. fragment number; the last based on the
field depends on the value type and the
In one control frame, it of the To DS and From DS 12 bits define the
defines the ID of the sequence number, which is subtype defined
subfields in the FC field
frame. the same in all fragments.

FCS - CRC-
32 error-
detection
sequence
Frame control (FC)- type of frame
and some control information

34
MAC Sublayer - Frame Format
• Subfields in FC field

35
Frame Types
• IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames:
◦ management frames:
used for the initial communication between stations and access points.
◦ control frames.
used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames

value of the type field is 01; the values of the subtype fields

◦ data frames.
Data frames are used for carrying data and control information.

36
 Addressing
Mechanism
• IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases
defined by the value of the two flags in the FC field, To DS
and From DS
◦ Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations
◦ The interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in
the MAC frame depends on the value of these flags

37
Addressing
Mechanism

38
 Addressing
•Mechanism
Case 1: 00, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0
◦ This means that the frame is not going to a distribution system and is not
coming from a distribution system.
◦ The ACK frame should be sent to the original sender.

• Case 2: 01, In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1.

◦ This means that the frame is coming from a distribution system (coming from an
AP ).
◦ The ACK should be sent to the AP
◦ The addresses are as address 3 contains the original sender of the frame (in
another BSS).

39
Addressing
Mechanism
• Case 3: 10, To DS =1 and From DS =O.
◦ This means that the frame is going to a distribution system ( frame is going
from a station to an AP)
◦ The ACK is sent to the original station.
◦ address 3 contains the final destination of the frame (in another BSS).

• Case 4:11, To DS =1 and From DS =1.

◦ This is the case in which the distribution the frame is going from one AP to
another AP in a wireless distribution system.
◦ We do not need to define addresses if the distribution system is a wired LAN
because the frame in these cases has the format of a wired LAN frame
(Ethernet, for example).
◦ Here, we need four addresses to define the original sender, the final
destination, and two intermediate APs.

40
Hidden Station
Problem

41
Exposed Station
Problems

• Station A is transmitting to station B.

• Station C has some data to send to station D, which can be
sent without interfering with the transmission from A to B
• However, station C is exposed to transmission from A; it
hears what A is sending and thus refrains from sending
• The handshaking messages RTS and CTS cannot help in this
case
• Station C hears the RTS from A and refrains from sending,
even though the communication between C and D cannot
cause a collision in the zone between A and C; station C
cannot know that station A’s transmission does not affect
the zone between C and D.

42
IEEE 802.11 Physical Media
• All implementations, except the
infrared, operate in the industrial,
scientific, and medical (ISM) band,
which defines three unlicensed
bands in the three ranges
• 902–928 MHz
• 2.400–4.835 GHz
• 5.725–5.850 GHz

43
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11
FHSS
• In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) the sender sends on one carrier
frequency for a short amount of time, then hops to another carrier frequency for
the same amount of time, and so on. After N hop-pings, the cycle is repeated.
• Spreading makes it difficult for unauthorized persons to make sense of the
transmitted data
• FHSS uses the 2.400–4.835 GHz ISM band – is divided into 79 subbands of 1 MHz
(and some guard bands)
• A pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence
• The modulation technique in this specification is either two-level FSK or four-level
FSK with 1 or 2 bits/baud, which results in a data rate of 1 or 2 Mbps

44
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11
DSSS
• In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS), each bit sent by the sender is
replaced by a sequence of bits called a chip code
• To avoid buffering, the time needed to send one chip code must be the same as
the time needed to send one original bit.
• DSSS uses the 2.400–4.835 GHz ISM band
• The modulation technique in this specification is PSK at 1 Mbaud/s
• The system allows 1 or 2 bits/baud (BPSK or QPSK), which results in a data rate of
1 or 2 Mbps

45
IEEE 802.11 Infrared
• uses infrared light in the range of 800 to 950 nm
• The modulation technique is called pulse position modulation (PPM)
• For a 1-Mbps data rate, a 4-bit sequence is first mapped into a 16-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0
• For a 2-Mbps data rate, a 2-bit sequence is first mapped into a 4-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0
• The mapped sequences are then converted to optical signals; the
presence of light specifies 1, the absence of light specifies 0

46
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11a
OFDM
• IEEE 802.11a describes the orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM) method for signal generation in a 5.725–5.850 GHz ISM band
• OFDM is the same as FDM with one major difference:
◦ All the subbands are used by one source at a given time
◦ Sources contend with one another at the data link layer for access

• The band is divided into 52 subbands, with 48 subbands for sending 48

groups of bits at a time and 4 subbands for control information
• Dividing the band into subbands diminishes the effects of interference
• If the subbands are used randomly, security can also be increased
• OFDM uses PSK and QAM for modulation
• The common data rates are 18 Mbps (PSK) and 54 Mbps (QAM).

47
Physical layer of IEEE 802.11b
• IEEE 802.11b describes the high-rate DSSS method for signal generation at
2.4GHz ISM band.
• This is similar to DSSS except for the encoding method, which is called
complementary code keying (CCK)
• CCK encodes 4 or 8 bits to one CCK symbol
• To be backward compatible with DSSS, HR-DSSS defines four data rates: 1,
2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps
◦ The first two (1 and 2 Mbps) use the same modulation techniques as DSSS
◦ The 5.5-Mbps version uses BPSK and transmits at 1.375 Mbaud/s with 4-bit CCK encoding
◦ The 11-Mbps version uses QPSK and transmits at 1.375 Mbps with 8-bit CCK encoding

48
IEEE 802.11n
• An upgrade to the 802.11 project is called 802.11n (the next
generation of wireless LAN)
• The goal is to increase the throughput of 802.11 wireless LANs
• The new standard emphasizes not only the higher bit rate but also
eliminating some unnecessary overhead
• The standard uses what is called MIMO (multiple-input multiple-
output antenna) to overcome the noise problem in wireless LANs
• The idea is that if we can send multiple output signals and receive
multiple input signals, we are in a better position to eliminate noise
• Some implementations of this project have reached up to 600 Mbps
data rate

49
Physical Media Defined by
Original 802.11 Standard
IEEE 802.11 FHSS(Frequency-hopping spread spectrum)
Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
Lower cost, power consumption
Most tolerant to signal interference

IEEE 802.11 DSSS (Direct-sequence spread spectrum)

Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
Supports higher data rates
More range than FH or IR physical layers

IEEE 802.11 Infrared

Lowest cost
Lowest range compared to spread spectrum
Doesn’t penetrate walls, so no eavesdropping

50
IEEE 802.11a , IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11g

IEEE 802.11a
Makes use of 5-GHz band
Provides rates of 6, 9 , 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps
Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

IEEE 802.11b
802.11b operates in 2.4 GHz band
Provides data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps
Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme

IEEE 802.11g
802.11g operates in 2.4 GHz band
Provides data rates of 22 and 54 Mbps
Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

51
Bluetooth
• A wireless LAN technology designed to connect
devices of different functions such as telephones,
notebooks, computers, cameras, printers, coffee makers,
and so on
• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means
that the network is formed spontaneously
• Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
◦ piconet
◦ scatternet

52
Piconet
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net
• It can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the master; the rest are
called slaves
• Maximum of seven slaves - Only one master
• Slaves synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the master
• But an additional eight slaves can stay in parked state, which means they can be
synchronized with the master but cannot take part in communication until it is
moved from the parked state.

53
Scatternet
• Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet
• A slave station in one piconet can become the master in
another piconet
• Bluetooth devices has a built-in short-range radio transmitter

54
Bluetooth layers

55
 L2CAP
• The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or
L2CAP (L2 here means LL)
• roughly equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs
• It is used for data exchange on an ACL link; SCO channels
do not use L2CAP
• L2CAP data packet format

the size of the a unique identifier

data, in bytes, for the virtual channel Data can be up to 65,535 bytes
coming from the created at this level
upper layers
56
L2CAP …
• The L2CAP has specific duties:
◦ Multiplexing
◦ segmentation and reassembly
◦ quality of service (QoS)
◦ group management

57
L2CAP : Multiplexing
• At the sender site, it accepts data from one of the upper-
layer protocols, frames them, and delivers them to the
baseband layer
• At the receiver site, it accepts a frame from the baseband
layer, extracts the data, and delivers them to the
appropriate protocol layer

58
L2CAP: segmentation and
reassembly
• The maximum size of the payload field in the baseband layer is
2774 bits, or 343 bytes
◦ This includes 4 bytes to define the packet and packet length
◦ Therefore, the size of the packet that can arrive from an upper layer can
only be 339 bytes
• However, application layers sometimes need to send a data packet
that can be up to 65,535 bytes (an Internet packet, for example)
• The L2CAP divides these large packets into segments and adds
extra information to define the location of the segments in the
original packet
• The L2CAP segments the packets at the source and reassembles
them at the destination

59
L2CAP : QoS
• Bluetooth allows the stations to define a quality-of-service
level
• Bluetooth defaults to what is called best-effort service; it
will do its best under the circumstances

60
L2CAP : Group Management
• Allow devices to create a type of logical addressing
between themselves
◦ Similar to multicasting
• For example, two or three secondary devices can be part of
a multicast group to receive data from the primary

61
Baseband Layer
• Roughly equivalent to MAC sublayer in LANs
• The primary and secondary stations communicate with
each other using time slots
• Access is using Time Division (Time slots)
◦ Length of time slot = dwell time = 625 microsec
◦ So, during one frequency, a sender sends a frame to a
slave, or a slave sends a frame to the master
• Communication is only between the primary and a
secondary; secondaries cannot communicate directly with
one another

62
Baseband Layer: Time division Duplex
TDMA
• A kind of half-duplex communication in which the slave
and receiver send and receive data, but not at the same
time (half-duplex)
◦ However, the communication for each direction uses
different carrier frequencies

63
Baseband Layer: Single-secondary
communication
• Also called Single-slave communication
• If the piconet has only one secondary, the TDMA operation
is very simple
◦ The time is divided into slots of 625 μs
◦ Master uses even-numbered slots
◦ Slave uses odd-numbered slots

64
Baseband Layer: Multiple-secondary
communication
Also called Multiple-slave communication
• more than one secondary in the piconet
◦ Master uses even-numbered slots
◦ Slave sends in the next odd-numbered slot if the packet in the
previous slot was addressed to it.
◦ All secondaries listen on even-numbered slots, but only one
secondary sends in any odd-numbered slot

65
Baseband Layer: Multiple-
secondary communication
1. In slot 0, the primary sends a frame to secondary 1.
2. In slot 1, only secondary 1 sends a frame to the primary because the
previous frame was addressed to secondary 1; other secondaries are silent.
3. In slot 2, the primary sends a frame to secondary 2.
4. In slot 3, only secondary 2 sends a frame to the primary because the
previous frame was addressed to secondary 2; other secondaries are silent.
5. The cycle continues.
• This access method is similar to a poll/select operation with reservations
◦ When the primary selects a secondary, it also polls it
◦ The next time slot is reserved for the polled station to send its frame
◦ If the polled secondary has no frame to send, the channel is silent
• Two types of links can be created between a primary and a secondary:
◦ synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) links
◦ asynchronous connectionless link (ACL)
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Baseband Layer: SCO
Link
• used when avoiding latency (delay in data delivery) is more
important than integrity (error-free delivery)
• In an SCO link, a physical link is created between the primary
and a secondary by reserving specific slots at regular intervals
• The basic unit of connection is two slots, one for each direction
• If a packet is damaged, it is never retransmitted
• SCO is used for real-time audio where avoiding delay is all-
important
• A secondary can create up to three SCO links with the primary,
sending digitized audio (PCM) at 64 kbps in each link

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Baseband Layer: ACL
• Used when data integrity is more important than avoiding
latency
• In this type of link, if a payload encapsulated in the frame is
corrupted, it is retransmitted
• A secondary returns an ACL frame in the available odd-
numbered slot if the previous slot has been addressed to it
• ACL can use one, three, or more slots and can achieve a
maximum data rate of 721 kbps

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Baseband Layer: Frame
Format
• Can be one of three types where a slot is 625 μs  259 μs is needed
for hopping and control mechanisms
◦ one-slot
◦ can last only 625 − 259, or 366 μs
◦ With a 1-MHz bandwidth and 1 bit/Hz, the size of a oneslot
frame is 366 bits.
◦ three-slot
◦ length of the frame is 3 × 625 − 259 = 1616 μs or 1616 bits
◦ Even though only one hop number is used, three hop numbers
are consumed
◦ Fiveslot
◦ the length of the frame is 5 × 625 − 259 = 2866 bits
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 Baseband Layer: Frame
Format
synchronization bits and the identifier of data or control information
the primary to distinguish the frame of coming from the upper layers
one piconet from that of another

define up to seven
secondaries (1-7) ,
Zero is used for header error
Type of flow control -
broadcast acknowledgment sequence number correction subfield
data set (1)
communication for Stop-and-Wait using Stop-and-Wait is a checksum to
coming indicates that
from the primary ARQ; 1 bit is ARQ; 1 bit is detect errors in each
from the the device is
to all secondaries sufficient for sufficient for 18-bit header
upper unable to
layers receive more acknowledgment sequence numbering section
frames (buffer
is full)

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 Bluetooth layers:
Radio Layer
• Roughly equivalent to physical layer of the Internet model
• Bluetooth devices are low-power and have a range of 10 m
• Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of
1 MHz each
• Physical links can be synchronous or asynchronous
◦ Uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum [Changing frequency of
usage]
◦ Changes it modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
◦ A device uses a frequency for only 625 μs (1/1600 s) before it hops to another frequency; the
dwell time is 625 μs
◦ Uses frequency shift keying (FSK ) with Gaussian bandwidth filtering to
transform bits to a signal
◦ Bit 1 is represented by a frequency deviation above the carrier; bit 0 is represented by a
frequency deviation below the carrier
◦ The frequencies, in megahertz, are defined for each channel
◦ fc = 2402 + n MHz n= 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., 78
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