SOURCES OF

AUTHORITY
GE8 - ETHICS
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY
 Several common ways of thinking about ethics ,are based on the idea that the
standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that commands our
obedience. In the following section, we will explore three of such ideas:
 Authority of LAW

 Authority of RELIGION

 Authority of CULTURE
 AUTHORITY OF LAW
Law is one’s guide to ethical behavior.

We recognize that there are many acts that we

immediately consider unethical, which we also
know are forbidden by law.

 Law is enforced by way of a system of sanctions

administered through persons and institutions, Ethics?.. Its simple, just follow
which all help in compelling us to obey.
whatever the law says.
AUTHORITY OF LAW
Question of Ethics, “can one simply identify ethics with the law?”

• THE PROHIBITIVE NATURE OF LAW

-the law does not tell us what we should do; it works by constraining us from
performing acts that we should not do-
 AUTHORITY OF RELIGION
Many of us had been brought up with one form of religious
upbringing or another, so it is very possible that there is a
strong inclination in us to refer to our religious background to
back up our moral valuations.

 The concept of Divine Command Theory compels our total

obedience to our religion.
 Supreme Authority/Divine Command

Ethics?.. Its simple, just follow

whatever your religion says.
AUTHORITY OF RELIGION
 The question of ethics in religion is place on two categorical inquiry; PRACTICAL
LEVEL and CONCEPTUAL LEVEL
 Practical Level (the presence of multiplicity of religion)
 Diversity of present religion poses a problem in which ethical standards varies from each religious
perspective, to some extent, conception of a single religion results in contrasting apprehension that
leads to religious divisiveness.

 Conceptual Level (connection of ethics and divine)

 Ethical skepticism to the divinity of commands blurs the connection of ethics and divine.

Euthyphro
(Plato’s Dialouge)

Euthyphro: “what is holy is loved by Gods.”

Socrates question: “is it holy because it is loved by Gods, or is it holy ‘itself’
and that is why it is loved by the Gods?
 AUTHORITY OF CULTURE
Ethics?... Its
simple, just follow
Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us
all aware that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are whatever your
different from our own, that there is in fact a wide diversity of
how different people believe it is proper to act. culture says!
 Culture, though not explicitly, dictates our ethical standards,
without realizing it.
AUTHORITY OF CULTURE
 ETHICAL CRISIS ON CULTURE

1. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES TENDS TO BLUR THE SENSE OF RIGHT AND

WRONG
2. RESPECT ON ATROCIOUS TRADITION OF OTHER CULTURE
3. INABILITY TO QUESTION ONES OWN CULTURE
4. CULTURAL IDENTITY CRISIS
QUESTION OF JABI
Under what specific theory or concept does the discussion on ethical crisis
on cultures falls into?
CULTURE
CULTURE/KULTURA
 Culture is all around us. It appears to be an actual part of our social life as well as our personality.

 Culture is a quality that some people have more than others.

 Culture is a broad category of human life. Is encompasses every perceptions, attitudes and actions that
influence how an individual decides.
 In essence, culture is not something people are born with but something they learn over time by
interacting with others within their community. As it is transmitted from generation to generation,
culture ensures continuity while also allowing for adaptation and change as societies evolve.
DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE
 Culture is a notoriously difficult term to define. In one sense, culture is used to
denote those which are related to arts and humanities.
 “culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” – (cited by Avruch,
1998)
 “culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group
or category of people from another” – (Hofstede, 1997)

 “culture is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but
different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next” – (Matsumoto,
1996)
Culture, thus includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among
particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of
reality, language, notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females
and males should interact, ideas about how the world works and so forth.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
 Culture is manifested at different layers of
 Culture is subject to gradual change
depth  The various part of a culture are all, to some
 Culture affects behavior and interpretations degree, interrelated
of behavior  Culture is descriptive not an evaluative concept
 Culture can be differentiated from both
universal human nature and unique
individual personality
 Culture influences biological process
 Culture is associated with social groups
 Culture is both an individual construct and a
social construct
 Culture has both universal and distinctive
elements
 Culture is learned
HOW DOES CULTURE SHAPE
MORAL BEHAVIOR?
 Culture is learned as children grow up in society and discover how their parents and others around
them interpret the world. Culture is shared.
 Culture undeniably does play a significant pseudo role within shaping moral behaviour and extends even
further to social norms. Arguably, rather than defining our moral behavior per se, it influences and
changes our definitions of what ought to be deemed morally acceptable by consistent exposure to it.
 The main determining question is whether moral behavior/actions are independent in comparison with
the case in question.
 Culture, itself, is an individualistic, man-made concept of collective identity that is open to complete
subjectivity.

“Individuals are a product of their culture” and “learning a culture is an essential part of
human development” ” -(De Guzman & Pena, 2016)
CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ETHICS

 Cultural Relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and
not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture.
 Cultural relativism is an affirmation that holds that societies are dissimilar in
their moral standards, their laws and culture protocols. To expand, cultural
relativism holds that what one culture believes is immoral, another culture
may believe is moral.
CATEGORIES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
1. Absolute: Everything that happens within a culture must and should not be questioned by outsiders.

2. Critical: Creates questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting them and why. Critical
cultural relativism also recognizes power relationships.
Cultural relativist argues that there is no absolute standard of good or evil,
therefore every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually
decided in each society.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM AS COMPARED
TO MORAL RELATIVISM AND ETHICAL
RELATIVISM
 Cultural relativism is the most famous form of moral relativism. In moral relativism, ethical judgments have their origins either in individual or
cultural standards. Our ethical judgments vary based on our origins and we have therefore varying moral principles which guides a person as
their basis of moral decisions and ethical judgment. We cannot say that this is right, this is wrong. There are variations.
 In moral relativism, ethical judgments have their origins either in individual or cultural standards. Our ethical judgments vary based on our
origins and we have therefore varying moral principles which guides a person as their basis of moral decisions and ethical judgment.
 Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong
depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in
another.
 Ethical relativism denies the existence of a one universal moral law. Ethical relativism supports the idea
that because cultures of societies are dissimilar in astronomical ways they accept, it follows that there is
not one correct set of precepts everyone should adopt. So instead, people should follow the moral laws
and protocols that their own unique society sets forth or accepts Both concepts are related to one
another but there is a distinct difference between the two.
 Cultural relativism is seen as different societies that believe in different moralities. Cultural relativists
see their view as a sociological fact where scholarly works proves the existence of different moralities.
Ethical relativists, on the contrary, claim that the same action that is moral is immoral in another. For
the ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied
to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a society's practices can be judged
are its own.
ON GENERAL ETHICS
STANDPOINT
 Ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical examination of the reasons underlying
practices and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral practices and beliefs, ethical relativism fails to
recognize that some societies have better reasons for holding their views than others.
 But even if the theory of ethical relativism is rejected, it must be acknowledged that the concept raises
important issues. Ethical relativism reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs and
that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture.
 THE FILIPINO WAY – FILIPINO
MORAL CHARACTER
Filipino cultural morality centers on having a smooth interpersonal relationship.
To achieve this, we have six basic Filipino values:
Strengths 8. Extreme Personalism
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao/Fellowship 9. Extreme Family Centeredness
2. Family Orientation 10.Lack of Discipline
3. Joy and Humor 11.Passivity and Lack of Initiative
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity 12.Colonial Mentality
5. Hard Work and Industry 13.Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
6. Faith and Religiosity 14.Lack of Self-Analysis and Self Reflection
7. Ability to Survive
THE UNIVERSAL VALUES

 By universal values we mean those values generally shared by cultures. There are some moral rules that
all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to exist.

1. Truth telling - without it, there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates with
anyone.

2. Respecting life - necessitates the prohibition on murder.

QUIZ
1. the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture.
2. A role in which, although not explicitly dictates our moral behavior, but it
significantly shape our morality.
3. It commands our obedience because of its prohibitive nature.
4. Title of Plato’s Dialouge
5. is a quality that some people have more than others.
6. is enforced by way of a system of sanctions administered through
persons and institutions, which all help in compelling us to obey.
7. Compelling concept that commands our obedience in our religion.
8. Three layers where culture manifests
9. Two dimensions of filipino colonial mentality
10. Your instructors full name.
DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS
HABIT
 The English word "value" comes from the Latin word "valere," which
literally translates to "to be worth.“
 A definition of value that can be found in another dictionary describes it as
"that which renders something beneficial, worthy, or estimable." It can be
thought of as the cost, significance, or value of anything.
 According to John Dewey, "The word "values" comes from the Latin verb
"valuare," which also means "to price," "to value," "to assess," and "to
estimate."
It is the act of cherishing something and keeping it for future generations,
as well as the act of determining the nature and value of something in
relation to that of something else.
HUMAN VALUES AND MORAL
VALUES
 When engaging with another  Every individual should conduct themselves
human being, it is essential to keep in a manner that represents moral qualities
in mind the importance of taking such as integrity, determination, loyalty,
candor, honesty, showing respect to each
into consideration human aspects,
other, and other principles that are
and the qualities that guide us in analogous to these.
doing so are known as human  Because of the moral concepts that we
values. have internalized, we are able to
 distinguish between what is appropriate
It refers to the feelings that we and inappropriate behavior, as well as that
have for the humanity that others which is useful or detrimental to both
possess. This idea encompasses individuals and society.
both the things that we would like  A person's moral values are the guiding
other people to do for us as well as ideas and beliefs that help them
the things that we would like to do understand the significance of their
for other people. existence and the goals they hope to
achieve or realize during their time spent
on earth. These ideas and beliefs help a
person understand the significance of their
 TYPE OF MORAL VALUES
 Acceptance – Maintaining an objective kind and generous heart.
standpoint in regard to the ideas and deeds of 
other people that are in direct opposition to Integrity – Preserving your dedication to the
one's own beliefs and practices. moral, ethical, and value driven ideas and
principles that you uphold.
 Compassion - Having empathy for one's own 
suffering or the suffering of other people and a Kindness – Demonstrating respect for other
desire to do action to alleviate that suffering. individuals and polite behavior toward them.

 Courage – Ability to continue despite obstacles Perseverance – Maintaining one's
and difficult circumstances. steadfastness in the face of opposition to one's
actions, beliefs, or goals.
 Equality – It is crucial to have the belief that 
everyone should be granted equal rights and Politeness – Employing appropriate manners
should be treated with respect. and conducting oneself in a manner that is
considered to be socially acceptable.
 Fairness – Acting in a just manner and sharing 
space with others in an appropriate manner are Respect – Revealing an understanding of and
both essential components of this value. an appreciation for the worth of someone or
something.
 Generosity – Generosity is offering one's time, 
resources, or aid to another person without Responsibility – Being trustworthy in terms of
expecting anything in return. keeping the obligations you make to others.

 Honesty – Being truthful but also possessing a Self-Control – Maintaining complete command
of both your words and actions at all times.
FORMATION OF MORAL
VALUES
Moral values shape an individual's choices and behaviors, deriving from
personal beliefs, society, or religion. They evolve over time, reflecting
societal changes. People prioritize based on meaning and exercise free will,
which can drive them toward their goals.
Some of the important points on formation of values
• Sources of Values
• Evolution Over Time
• Individual Choice
VIRTUE AND FORMATION
 Both values and virtues, in their purest, most elemental forms, are inherently opposed to
and compete with one another. If a person wants to live a virtuous life, they need to first
cultivate the value that will eventually lead them to the relative virtue that they want,
and then they need to engage in routines that exemplify that value. Only then can they
hope to achieve their objective of leading a virtuous life.
 Virtues are excellent moral habits that make the individual even better equipped to carry
out those good activities successfully and, as a direct result of this, function well as
human beings.
 Knowledge and virtue, or "the understanding of and the practice of good habit," are both
natural endowments, in accordance with the Greek concept of wisdom. Knowledge is
described as "the comprehension of and the practice of good habit.“
 The development of virtue requires first and foremost the accumulation of correct
knowledge in one's mind, since this is the essence of what it means to be "good.“
 The development of virtue through the acquisition of knowledge and the application of
that knowledge leads to self-awareness.
 PRINCIPAL VALUES OF
VIRTUES
Cardinal Virtues
 Prudence – is the capability of acting appropriately regardless of the circumstances, which enables one
to examine many possibilities and chose the one that will have the biggest influence on the situation at
hand.
 Justice – is the act of giving everyone what they deserve without consideration to the circumstances
surrounding the situation.
 Temperance – is the capacity to exert control over one's sensitive desires and resist the urge to indulge
them.
 Fortitude – is the capacity of an individual to keep their composure in the face of extraordinarily
challenging conditions.
Theological Virtues
 Faith – is the superiority of having faith in what God has stated while not having seen it for oneself.
 Hope – is the habit of having unshakeable confidence in God's providence for one's life.
 Charity – is the superiority that arises from having a love for God and all of the things that he has made
MORAL CHARACTER
A person’s moral character is viewed as a fundamental function of the
various moral virtues and vices that the person possesses or does not
possess.
Formation of Moral Character
• Deeds-driven
• Unified Self
• Cultivation of Goodness
• Conscience and Integrity
CIRCULAR RELATIONS OF
ACTS AND CHARACTER
 A diverse array of human behaviors can be attributed to a variety of
interpretations of what constitutes "human nature" as well as the
abundance of social positions, each of which comes with its own obligations
and capabilities.
 An act has a predetermined quality due to the fact that the agent who
does it contains particular characteristics at the time of its execution; an
individual's consistent character is the source of the act, while an act can
also shape a person's character.
ACTS THAT BUILD
CHARACTER
 The development of a person's character is influenced by several factors,
including the passage of time, the accumulation of experiences, and the
choices they make about the fields of study and careers they follow. In
point of fact, attempting to resolve a dispute, as well as being engaged in
activities such as performing schoolwork, having a civil debate, discovering
solutions to challenges, playing sports, and other such activities, all serve
to build character.
 Each of us possesses the capacity and capability to cultivate and build our
character, and our character will be the decisive factor in whether or not
we are successful.
 Even if the term "character" can refer to a vast number of features, the
fact of the matter is that all of those traits are connected in some way.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 The moral development of the majority of individuals, as proposed by
Lawrence Kohlberg in his thesis, begins with a desire to avoid personal
punishment and, over the course of their lives, may mature into a desire to
make the world a better and more just place for all persons in it. The 1960s
were a pivotal decade in the development of this paradigm.
 The maturation process, which includes contributing to our moral growth,
involves coming to terms with what constitutes good and evil in our world.
 It is also a process through which we adopt proper attitudes and behaviors
towards other people in society depending on the norms, regulations, or
laws that are already in place. This aspect of socialization is closely related
to the concept of norm acquisition.
 KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg's stages of moral development, established in 1958 and based on Jean Piaget's
theory, provide a comprehensive framework for understanding moral growth. The cognitive
aspect of Kohlberg's theory emphasizes the thought processes involved in determining the
appropriateness of actions. Instead of concentrating on the decisions made or actions
taken, the theory examines how individuals respond to moral dilemmas, contrasting with
empirical research that typically focusesConventional
Pre-Conventional on the outcomes. Post-Conventional
Stage 1: Obedience-and- Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Stage 5: Social-Contract
Punishment Orientation Orientation Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation Stage 4: Law-and-Order Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-
Orientation Principal Orientation
Stage 1 emphasizes a child's desire to Stage 3 centers on children seeking Stage 5 emphasizes recognizing and
avoid punishment through appropriate approval and avoiding disapproval from respecting diverse rights and values,
behavior, while Stage 2 introduces a self- others by being "nice," while Stage 4 advocating for compromise and majority
interested mindset where actions are involves an unquestioning acceptance of rule, which aligns with democratic
guided by personal gain and reciprocal laws and norms, recognizing their principles, while Stage 6 is characterized
benefits. importance in maintaining societal order by moral reasoning based on universal
and the obligation to uphold them for ethical principles like fairness and justice,
everyone’s benefit. leading individuals to prioritize justice over
unjust laws and to act according to their
chosen moral codes, despite Kohlberg's
difficulty in finding consistent examples of
this highest stage.
CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL
DECISIONS
 The term "com alia Scientia," from which the English word "conscience" is
derived, translates literally to "in addition to knowledge" (application of
knowledge). Because it is a demonstration of one's understanding, it is also
an act of reason, which can be applied to both the act in question and the
question of whether or not it is fundamentally good or bad. Because it is a
demonstration of one's understanding, it is also an act of reason.
 The expression of one's conscience is an act that is guided by reason due
to the fact that it is an expression of one's knowledge. Therefore, the
actions that humans take or the judgments that they make are acts of
conscience; similarly, making a decision about right and wrong is also an
act of conscience.