Bricks and Blocks

Prof. Vineet Kothari

Civil Engineering Department
Nirma University
 Introduction
• Clay products are one of the most important
classes of building materials. They include bricks,
tiles, ceramics, terracotta, earthenware, and
stoneware. They are basically made by moulding,
drying/burning prepared clay.
• Brick is one of the oldest manufactured building
materials in the world. Hand-moulded clay bricks
have been used in Egypt, as early as 14,000 BC.

2
 Examples of Brick Buildings

Fig. 3.1 Historic brick building (note the brick arches in both the buildings)
(a) Harpers Ferry, MD, USA, built in 1848 using lime mortar (b) College of
Engineering, Guindy, Chennai, built in 1920 (Courtesy: Prof. M. Sekar)

3
 Properties of Brick Clay
• The main raw material for bricks is clayey soils,
containing 50-60% silica and 20-30% alumina with small
quantities of other substances like lime, manganese,
sulphur, phosphates, and oxide of iron (which gives the
colour)
• the composition of the soil depends on the locality from
which the soil originates. These substances, if not
present in the clay, are added during mixing.
• The clayey soil is usually obtained from open pits with
may affect the environment by disrupting drainage,
vegetation and wildlife habitat.
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 Types of Clay
Three principal forms of clay:
• Surface Clay
• Shales: fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock
composed of a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny
fragments quartz and calcite.
• Fire clay: Mined at greater depths-Contain fewer
metallic oxides than shales and surface clays and have
more uniform chemical and physical properties.
Bricks from different manufacturers, though having
similar appearance, may differ in other properties.
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 Composition of Good Brick Clay
• Bricks are made from clay(20-30% mass), silt (20-
35%), sand (stabilizer-35-50%) and water, which
are mixed to form plastic viscous mass.
• It is moulded, dried and when heated to 800-
1300oC to acquire hardness and strength.
• For better quality bricks, the clay should be:
– Plastic when mixed with water, Plasticity index-20-25%
– Have enough tensile strength to keep its shape,
– Clay particles must fuse together

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 Ingredients Present in Brick

• Alumina: Should contain 20-30 % alumina. Imparts plasticity for

easy moulding.
• Silica: Should contain 50-60% silica. Prevents cracking, shrinking,
and warping of raw green bricks and imparts uniform shape. When
lime and oxides of iron are there, silica fuses at lower temperatures.
• Lime- <5% in finely powdered state prevents shrinkage of raw
bricks-acts as flex to fuse silica during burning.
• Iron Oxides-<6-7%-Like lime, acts as a flex and imparts red colour to
bricks.
• Magnesium oxide-<1%-imparts yellow tint to bricks and decrease
shrinkage.

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 Harmful Ingredients in Brick Clay
• Excess alumina- with inadequate sand, shrinks and warps raw bricks
during drying /burning and makes bricks too hard when burnt.
• Excess Silica- not be mouldable easily and may not burn easily. Such
bricks, when burnt would be quite brittle and porous.
• Excess lime or manganese oxides- result in 'lime pops/manganese
pops’ and affect the aesthetic appearance.
• Iron pyrites - Oxidized during burning and result in bricks being
crystallized and disintegrated.
• Alkalis- Make bricks to lose shape and in brickwork cause white
coloured efflorescence-limited to 10% by volume.
• Pebbles-Result in weak and porous bricks-will not make bricks break
regularly as desired.
• Vegetation and organic matter-Bricks become porous.

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 Manufacture of Bricks
Steps of Manufacture:
1. Extraction (mining) and storage of raw materials,
2. Preparation (crushing, blending, grinding and
screening),
3. Forming or Moulding,
4. Drying,
5. Colouring (required for clay roof tiles only)
6. Firing,
7. Packing and distribution.
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 Preparation of Clay
• From storage, clays from different pits and locations are
blended to produce more uniform raw materials and to get
uniform colour.
• Then undergo grinding and milling process, to reduce it to
less than 2 mm.
• In tempering a homogeneous, plastic clay mass is produced
by adding sufficient water.
• Two types of Extrusion- (a) De-airing machines- removes air
by passing clay into a vacuum after pugging, and (b) Non de-
airing pug-mills -consolidate and extrude clay without de-
airing. Both can be used with dies to extrude shapes.
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 De-airing Extruder
Extruders have a fairly long
barrel conveying the
mixture towards the die and
building the pressure
needed to force the mixture
through the die. The
vacuum pump sucks out as
much air as possible from
the clay as it passes along
the barrel, to give a denser
bubble-free product. The
yield may be in the range of
1500-15,000 bricks.

Fig. 3.2 Mid-sized 45A Extruder from JC Steele & Sons, Inc., Statesville, NC, USA; note
the auger blades
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 Forming or Moulding the Brick
• Three methods of forming: (1) Stiff-mud process, (2) Soft-mud process
and (3) Dry-mud process. Only Stiff-mud process is given here.
• water in the range of 10–15% by weight is mixed to make it plastic.
• If a non-de-airing pug-mill is used, it is sent through a de-airing machine
to remove air pockets and bubble.
• The clay is then forced by an auger through an extrusion die, producing
a continuous column of clay of desired size and shape.
• A cutter using taut wire cuts bricks by (wire-cut bricks). Cutter spacing
and die sizes chosen to compensate for shrinkage during drying and
firing.
• The bricks have at least one shallow frog. Most structural bricks are
produced by this process, as it results in hard and dense bricks.
• Holes (< 25% of the volume ) can be made in the bricks.

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 Soft Mud and Dry-Press Process
• Soft-mud process: It is suitable for clays containing too
much water to be extruded by the stiff-mud process
and Hand moulded. The size and shape of bricks are
variable and hence are not suitable for use in thin
mortar beds.
• Dry-Press Process: Suited to clays of very low plasticity.
Clay is mixed with up to 10% water and the dry mix is
fed into machines which form bricks in steel moulds
under high pressure (3.4 to 10.3 MPa). Brick has the
least amount of shrinkage and warpage and precise
size. They are called as pressed bricks.
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Comparison of Different
Forming Processes

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 Ground Moulding
• Soft-mud process is extensively used in India. This
could be done either by ground moulding or by
table moulding.
• Ground Moulding: Adopted when large and level
land is available. The ground is leveled, plastered
smooth and sprinkled over with sand. The mould
used may be made of wood or steel-moulds are
larger than the size of burnt bricks to account for
shrinkage. Bricks are laid in masonry with frog up.

15
Typical wooden mould used in hand-
moulding

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Table Moulding

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 Machine Moulding
• Bricks are made with
hand-operated or power-
driven machines. The
CBRI, Roorkee has
developed a portable
hand-operated C-Brick
moulding machine, based
on vibro-compaction
technique- used to
manufacture bricks at low
cost.
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 Drying, Colouring, and Firing

• Drying: Wet brick may contain 7- 30 % moisture, depending upon

the forming method. Drying done by (a) Storing bricks in open drying
areas covering bricks by plastic sheets or (b) In drying chambers (38-
204 ºC, for 24-48 hours of kilns-with moisture content ~ 2%).
• Colouring (clay roof tiles only): After drying, roof tiles are engobed or
glazed.
• Firing: Fired in kilns (~1315 ºC )- Silica, alumina, and oxides of iron,
are fused to give strength and durability to brick.
– Six stages of firing: (1) water-smoking (evaporation of free water), (2)
dehydration, (3) oxidation, (4) vitrification, (5) flashing, and (6) cooling. All
except flashing and cooling are associated with rising temperatures in the
kiln.

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 Vitrification
• When fired in kilns at 870 -1315ºC Silica, alumina,
boron, phosphorous, and flux-forming metal
oxides will fuse into a hard, glassy non-crystalline
material. This process is called vitrification.
• Even part vitrification gives sufficient strength
and significantly reduces the permeability of
bricks.
• After Firing, bricks are cooled for 48 to 72 hours.

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 Different Types of Brick Kilns
• Clamp kiln
• Up-draught kiln (UDK)
• Down-draught kiln (DDK)
• Bull’s trench kiln (BTK), with movable or fixed
chimney
• Zigzag kiln
• Hoffman (annular) kiln
• Vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK)
• Tunnel kiln.
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 Classification of Brick Kilns
Two types
• Based on the production process of kilns
• Based on the flow of air in the kilns
• Classification based on production process-
Two Types:
– Intermittent kilns
– Continuous kilns

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 Intermittent Kilns
• Bricks are fired in batches-low fuel efficiency
and pollute the atmosphere.
• Two categories
– Intermittent kilns without chimney (examples:
Clamp, Scove and Scotch kilns),
– Intermittent kilns with chimney (Examples:
Downdraught kiln and climbing kilns).
 In both bricks and fuel are stacked in layers and the
entire batch is fired at once. After the fire dies
down, bricks are cooled.
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 Continuous Kilns
• Fire will always burn and bricks are warmed, fired
and cooled simultaneously in different parts of the
kiln.
• Two types:
– Moving-fire kiln- fire moves round a closed kiln circuit,
with the help of chimney/suction fan, while the bricks
remain stationary (Examples: Hoffman kiln, Fixed
Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln, and Habla zigzag Kiln).
– Moving ware kiln- fire remains stationary, while the
bricks and air move in counter-current paths (examples:
Tunnel kiln and Vertical shaft brick kiln).
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Classification based on
Production Process

25
 Classification based on air flow
• Based on the direction of air flow with respect to the brick
setting in the kiln, brick kilns classified as:
– Up-draught kiln- Air enters the kiln from below, gets heated from
the fire and moves upward through the brick setting, transferring
the heat to the bricks(Clamps and vertical shaft brick kiln)
– Down-draught kiln- Air is first heated up with the fire. The hot air
is then made to enter the kiln from top and is brought down
through the brick setting, with the help of draught created by a
stack-bricks not in direct contact with fire.
– Cross-draught kiln- Air flows horizontally through the brick
stacking. The air movement is caused by draught created by the
chimney or by a fan (Hoffman kiln, Fixed chimney Bull’s trench kiln
and tunnel kiln).
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 Clamp Kiln

•-Invented by the Egyptians around 4000 BC. 25-40% kilns in India!

•Trapezoidal plan-shorter edge of parallel sides below GL - surface
rising at ~ 15o to reach the other parallel edge-Height: 4 to 6m.
•Fuel and bricks are placed in alternate layers and fired.
•~25,000-100,000 bricks- take ~3 months to burn and cool bricks.
•Burn fuel inefficiently and highly polluting -20-30 % bricks poor
quality. Cheap, simple to build, min. transportation cost.
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 The Down-Draught Kiln (DDK)
• Bricks are fired in batches
• Permanently built structure- Rectangular firing chamber
connected to chimney through an underground flue duct, and a
barrel-vaulted roof (see next slide).
• 2 chambers (capacity 20,000 – 40,000 bricks in a batch)
connected to a single chimney and fired alternately.
• Bricks not in direct contact with the flames.
• Total time required for a batch 7-10 days.
• Uniform heat distribution in DDK, % of good quality bricks is
higher than clamp kilns. DDK has limited heat recovery
features.
• Share of DDK-1 % of the 250 billion bricks produced in India.
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The Down-Draught Kiln (DDK)

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 The Down-Draught Kiln (DDK)

• Principle:
• Continuous type of kiln.

• Construction: rectangular, circular or oval shape in the plan.

• Range of dimension of trench depending upon the desired

capacity of the bricks:
– Length: 50 – 78m
– Width: 6 – 8 m
– Depth: 1 – 2 m

• A typical trench kiln has two walls:

– Inner wall
– Outer wall
 Vertical Shaft Brick kiln (VSBK)
• Invented in China in 1958- Modified updraft kiln with
stationary fire and moving brick arrangement.
• Works as “counter-current heat exchanger”- Heat exchange
takes place between updraft hot air and downwards moving
bricks. Coal is used as external fuel .
• VSBK has long, rectangular, vertical shaft(6-10m high) with
two or more shafts(1.0× 1.5 m to 1.75×3.75 m). Green bricks
are loaded from the top of the shaft in batches. Each batch -
four layers of bricks.
• Bricks from top zone pass through pre-heating, firing and
cooling zones and reach the bottom where the burnt bricks
are unloaded every 2-3 hours(see next slide).
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Vertical Shaft Brick kiln (VSBK)

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 Advantages of VSBK
1. It is energy efficient and consumes less fuel and has lower suspended
particulate matter emissions-saves about 25–40% of coal and reduce
pollution by 70% when compared to the FCBTK.
2. It provides cleaner working environment, with lesser dust and smoke.
3. Requires less space compared to other brick making technologies. With a
roof protection, operated throughout the year.
4. It does not require external power source. All or only a limited number of
shafts can be operated to meet the demand.
5. Requires very little maintenance-hence very economical.
6. More efficient due to proper combustion of fuels, efficient heat transfer,
and minimal heal losses.
7. It has low operating costs, produces bricks of high quality and specifications.
8. Suitable for firing solid bricks; can also be used to fire bricks with
perforations.

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 Tunnel Kiln

60-150 m long horizontal tunnel. The clay products are set on “kiln cars” and
are moved at fixed intervals through the tunnel.
The kiln cars pass through a long stationary firing zone at the center. Air
supply and extraction systems are provided at several points.
The bricks and the air move in opposite directions and the temperature is
regulated at 900-1300oC.
Duration of the firing cycle: 30- 72 hours.

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 Advantages of Tunnel Kiln
1. Most advanced brick making technology. Has
better control over the firing process, high quality
of the products, and large production volume.
2. It has a mechanized and highly automated
process-emits about 80% lower particulate matter
and negligible black carbon as compared to FCBTK.
3. Used to fire all types of products such as solid
bricks, hollow/perforated bricks, and roof and
floor tiles. Emission of CO2 is however higher.

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 Pollution Due to Brick Kilns
• Brick kilns emit: Particulate matter (PM), Sulfur
dioxide (SO2),Sulfur trioxide (SO3), Nitrogen
oxides (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon
dioxide (CO2), Metals, Fluorides and Organic
compounds [methane, ethane, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)], etc.
• Central Pollution Control Board has strict
emission limits for particulate matter (in mg/m3):
For BTKs 750-1000, DDKs-1200 and VSKs-250.
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Comparison of Kiln Technologies

37
 Classification of Bricks
According to use: (a) Common bricks, (b) Engineering bricks, (c) Facing bricks, (d) Fire
bricks, and (e) Paving bricks.
According to Indian code IS 1077:1992: based on compressive strength, water
absorption, and limit of efflorescence, as given in Table 3.3.
According to method of manufacture: (a) Hand made: Water-stricken or Sand-
stricken, (b) Wire-cut, (c) Stiff-mud, and (d) Dry pressed. Factory made (wire-cut)
bricks in India give strength of ~17 MPa and hand-made bricks only 3–5 MPa.

38
Classification of Bricks Based on Physical
Requirements

39
 Qualities of Good Bricks
• Compressive strength > 5.5 N/mm2.
• Should be table-mounted/wire-cut bricks, well burned in kilns, free from cracks and
have sharp and square edges. Uniform bright red or copper colour.
• Have uniform shape and standard size.
• Give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other without breaking.
• When broken or fractured show a homogeneous and uniform compact texture..
• When soaked in cold water for 24 h- Absorb <20% water by weight for first-class
bricks and 22% by weight for second-class bricks,.
• Should be sufficiently hard. No impression left when scratched with finger nails.
• Should not break into pieces when dropped on hard ground from a height of 1 m.
• Should have low thermal conductivity and sound-proof.
• When soaked in water for 24 h & dried, should not show deposits of white salts.

40
 Architectural Characteristics of Bricks
Shape and Size:

41
Common Burnt Bricks and Hollow Bricks

42
Bricks of different shapes and forms

43
 Types of Bricks
• Engineering bricks: Adequately burnt bricks, free from flaws, and have high
durability and compressive strength and low water absorption (IS 2180:1988).
Used in bridge structures, industrial foundations, multi-storeyed buildings & damp
proof course. Density > 2.5 g/cm3.
• Burnt clay perforated bricks: Standard size bricks with perforations(30–45% of the
total area) running through their thickness. Their light weight (60% lighter than
conventional bricks) reduces the weight of walls, and the size foundations. Shorter
side of rectangular perforation > 20 mm and diameter of circular perforations > 25
mm. Porotherm Smart Bricks(M/s. Wienerberger India) are available in three sizes
and in half-block versions. Provide superior thermal insulation (45% more than
conventional bricks), improve indoor comfort , energy efficiency and fire rating of
F240 (240 minutes).

44
 Burnt Clay Hollow Bricks

• Contain hollows with ribs. They are usually made from tile
clay as ribs have to be thin and strong. Three types (IS
3952:2013):
– Type A – Bricks with both faces keyed for plastering or rendering,
– Type B – Bricks with both faces smooth and suitable for use
without plastering or rendering on either side, and
– Type C – Bricks with one face keyed and one face smooth.
• Three sizes (190 × 190 × 90 mm, 290 × 90 × 90 mm, and 290
× 140 × 90 mm). Have about one-third the weight of normal
bricks and provide thermal and sound insulation, but not
suitable where concentrated loads are expected.
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 Facing Bricks

Building with Facing

Bricks in Maryland, USA

Facing bricks: Made from clay, shale, fire clay, or a mixture of the
aforementioned. They are thoroughly burnt to produce uniform colour and
to have plane rectangular faces and sharp, straight, and right-angled edges
(IS 2691:1988). Have nicely finished surface and textures- Used in the
exterior faces of walls without any plaster or surface treatment.
46
 Fire /Refractory Bricks
• Made from fire-clays with a large amount of alumina
(aluminium oxide content as high as 50–80%),and less
silica, flint and feldspar.
• Fired in kilns, at extremely high temperatures, until
they are vitrified.
• Identified by yellow colour, and may also be glazed.
• Very heavy/dense, light in colour, soft in texture, have
low porosity, and are resistant to heat.
• Have low thermal conductivity and energy efficiency.
• Laid with fire resistant mortar and not cement mortar.
47
 Acid-resistant bricks
• Made using clay or shale of suitable
composition with low lime and iron content,
feldspar, and sand, and vitrified at high
temperatures in ceramic kilns (IS 4860:1968).
• Used with chemical resistant mortars in
chemical and allied industries.

48
 Paving Bricks
• Hard bricks specially made for paving the surface of patios,
drive ways, and streets.
• Made from shale, fire clay or a mixture of the two.
• Should be free from cracks and flaws and nodules of free
lime, and have smooth rectangular faces with sharp
corners(IS 3583:1988).
• Machine moulded and are burnt in a continuous kiln, at
much higher temperatures to ensure high degree of
vitrification and uniform colour and texture. No frogs.
• Unaffected by weather and have high resistance to wear
from traffic.
49
Paving Bricks

50
 Properties of
Different Types of Bricks

51
 Size and Weight of Bricks

Average weight of a brick ~3 to 3.5 kg depending on its density.

Common burnt clay bricks: 15.70 to 18.85 kN/m3,
 Engineering bricks: 21.20 kN/m3,
Pressed bricks : 17.25-18.05 kN/m3,
Refractory bricks: 17.25 to 19.60 kN/m3
Deadweight of brick wall: 18.85 - 23.55 kN/m3, depending on the type of brick.

52
 Defects in Burnt Clay Bricks
1. Over-burnt bricks
2. Under-burnt bricks
3. Efflorescence: Caused by salts, resulting in a crystalline white deposit on
surface. Minimized by using proper brick material, preventing moisture contact
with the masonry, etc. See IS 3495-Part 3.
4. Lime blowing/lime bursting: To avoid particle size should be restricted to 2 mm
or firing to be done > 1050 oC
5. Oversize in thickness: Common fault with wire-cut bricks.
6. Bloating: Occur in bricks which are heated too quickly-will have enough
strength.
7. Multiple surface cracks in random directions: cause-differential drying-
prevented by mixing clay thoroughly before molding
8. Spots: Cause-Iron sulphide-Not harmful.
9. Lamination crack: Occur in hand-moulding process-Prevented by proper
training of workers.
53
 Advantages and Uses of Bricks
1. Sustainable:
2. Minimal wastage
3. Easy to handle
4. Easy to construct
5. Aesthetic
6. Porosity: The ability to release and absorb moisture- useful to regulate
temperature and humidity inside structures
7. Strength: Bricks have sufficient compressive strength
8. Fire Resistance: Good-150 mm brick wall provide fire protection rating of 4 hours
9. Sound insulation: 45 db for a 115 mm brick wall and 50 db for 230 mm thick.
10. Insulation: Above normal thermal insulation
11. Wear Resistant-Excellent
12. Emission free: Bricks used in brick walls does not emit any gases
13. No surface protection needed
14. Durability: Extremely durable
54
 Substitutes for Bricks
The different bricks that use industrial wastes or
other materials include:
1. Fly ash bricks,
2. Sand-lime bricks or Calcium silicate bricks,
3. Compressed Earth Blocks, and
4. Concrete blocks.
• The term ‘block’ is used to differentiate it from
the ‘fired’ brick.
55
 Fly Ash Bricks
• Primarily composed of cement, clay, fly ash and water. Fly ash
has to be mixed in optimum proportion depending on the
properties of soils used in the brick. Manufacturing process
similar to fired clay bricks.
• The advantages are:
– Reduction of drying shrinkage and drying losses,
– Reduction of firing time and also coal consumption,
– Higher strength compared with normal clay bricks,
– More number of bricks (up to 40 %) with same quantity of clay soil,
– Uniform shape and size, rougher texture, with sharper edges and
corners of bricks; Require less mortar in the joints of brickwork
– Environment friendly

56
Desirable Characteristics of Fly Ash Used for
Bricks

57
 Pulverized Fuel Ash Lime Bricks
• Manufactured by inter-grinding or blending various raw
materials which are then moulded into bricks and subjected
to curing cycles at different temperatures and pressures.
• Crushed bottom fuel ash or sand may also be used in the
composition as a coarser material to control water
absorption in the final product.
• Pulverized fuel ash reacts with lime in presence of moisture
to form a calcium-silicate hydrate which acts as a binder.
• It is a chemically bonded brick and hence does not require
firing.

58
 Advantages of Pulverized Fuel Ash Lime
Bricks
• As no burning of bricks is involved, saves
energy and there is no pollution. In addition to
helping the disposal of fly ash (which is a
waste product) it also conserves top soil,
• Can be made locally, even at the job site,
• have better mechanical properties and more
durability,
• About 10-20% cheaper than burnt clay bricks.

59
FaL-G (Fly ash-Lime-Gypsum) Bricks
• Developed and patented by Dr Bhanumathidas and Kalidas-
1991
• Uses 60 % fly ash, 30 % sand, and 10 % Portland cement . In
the lime route: fly ash (62 %), slaked lime (8 %), anhydrite
gypsum (5 %), and stone dust/sand (25 %).
• These are manually fed into pan mixer- required amount of
water is added and intimately mixed.
• The mixture is used in brick making machines, and the bricks
are dried and water cured for 14 days.
• Compressive strength of 10-35 N/mm2, and water absorption
of 8-15 %

60
 Calcium Silicate Bricks
The essential steps are(www.mortar.org.uk):
1. Hydrated or quicklime is added to siliceous sand or crushed flint, or
manufactured sand in the ratio 1(lime):10(sand), and the two are mixed
thoroughly; pigments may also be added
2. Water is added and mixed thoroughly to moulding consistency
3. The damp mixture pressed into the desired shape;
4. Green bricks are moved into autoclaves
5. Steam at ~ 175oC is injected into the sealed chamber, increasing pressure
to 0.8-1.2 N/mm2. Lime and sand are combined chemically, to form calcium
silicate, which acts as a bonding agent.
6. Bricks remain in autoclave for 7-10 hours and then unloaded and allowed
to cool.
7. Used for masonry construction just like common bricks, and also as facing
bricks- use less energy and do not produce air pollutants.
61
Classification of Calcium Silicate Bricks

62
 Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB)
• Made by pressing a mixture of soil (having liquid limit
below 25 %, clay content up to 20 %, minimum sand
content of 35 % and plastic index of 8.5- 10.5 %) and
stabilizer like cement (5 %) or lime (20 %) or a
combination of cement (4 %) and fly ash (5 %), using a
manual or motorized machine at suitable moisture
content.
• Laterite soil can also be used.
• Advantages: Low cost, low energy requirement (15
times less energy than fired bricks), comparable strength
and durability.
63
 Concrete Blocks
• Made using a mixture of cement, fine and coarse aggregate
and are pale gray in colour.
• Available in different shapes, such as stretcher, corner, double
corner or pier, jamb, header, bull nose, and partition block,
and concrete floor units (see next slide).
• Special ‘architectural’ blocks with a number of surface textures
are also available. They include split face (rough texture
similar to cut and dressed stone), rustic face (shot blasting the
surface with small pellets), chiseled face, fluted face, and
gemstone face.
• Hollow blocks construction facilitates provisions for concealing
electrical conduit, water, and soil pipes.
64
Concrete Blocks

65
Solid and Hollow Concrete Blocks

66
Fig. 3.16 Wall of a building built with split
face concrete bloc

67
Physical Requirements of Concrete Blocks

Concrete blocks are classified into four types: (1) Hollow, (2) Solid, and (3) Cellular
concrete, and (4) Cellular concrete using preformed foam (See IS 2185- Parts 1-4).
Hollow blocks have one or more large cavities, which either pass through the block
(open cavity) or do not effectively pass through the block (closed cavity) and having
solid material 50- 75% of the total volume of the block. A block, which has solid
material >75% of the total volume of the block, is considered solid block.
68
 Paver Blocks
• These are solid concrete blocks of various
shapes, sizes, textures, and colours, made for
exterior ground-paving on side-walks, drive
ways, and parking lots (IS 15658:2006 & IS
10360:1982).
• They are more durable than bricks but are
less expensive.
• Some manufacturers design their pavers to
interlock (See next slide).
69
Use of Paver Blocks in Chennai

70
 Materials used in Concrete Blocks
• Normal weight units are made with sand, crushed stones
(density 2000 kg/m3), and air-cooled slag.
• Lightweight concrete blocks are made by replacing the
sand and gravel with expanded clay, shale, or slate.
(Expanded clay, shale, and slate are made by heating raw
materials to ~ 1093°C. At this temperature the material
bloats, due to rapid generation of gases). Weighs 10.0-
12.7 kg- Used in non-load-bearing walls and partitions.
• When 33/43/53 grade OPC used, cement may be replaced
by fly ash up to 25 %. Fine aggregates may be replaced by
fly ash up to 20 %.
71
 Production of Concrete Blocks
• The concrete mix should not be richer than 1:6 (cement:
combined aggregates) . Fineness modulus: 3.6-4.0.
• Due to the thin web and faces of the concrete blocks, only 6-12
mm coarse aggregates are used. The mix has more sand (60-80
%) and less gravel (20-40 %) and water.
• Due to this ‘dry-mix’, vibro-compression machines are used.
• The formed units are removed from the molds and cured in a
water tank for at least 14 days.
• After curing, the blocks are dried for 4 weeks before using them
in walls.
• Freshly made or uncured concrete blocks should never be used
in constructions.
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 Dimensions of Concrete Blocks
Nominal dimensions (including mortar thickness of 10
mm) are:
• Length: 400, 500, or 600 mm
• Height: 200 or 100 mm
• Width: 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, or 300 mm.
Blocks are also made in half lengths of 200, 250, and 300
mm to correspond to the full length.

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 Advantages of Concrete Blocks
• Cost effective than burnt clay bricks.
• Require less mortar in joints. No of joints in masonry are also less
compared to bricks.
• Much stronger than bricks, if cured properly.
• Are light and hence easy to handle-reduce loads on foundation.
• Hollows in the blocks results in great saving of material.
• Due to large size results in rapid construction of walls per man-hour
compared with bricks
• The air in hollow of the block provides thermal insulation-reduce air-
conditioning load.
• No efflorescence due to salts.
• Environment Friendly, as waste products like fly ash can be used.
• Less maintenance cost.
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 Plastic Blocks

• Developed by Conceptos Plásticos in Colombia in 2011.

• LEGO-like bricks, made from recycled plastics-used to build houses up to
two stories.
• Uses an extrusion process, the plastic is melted to create 3 kg brick.
• Insulate heat and have additives that retard combustion. Also provide
thermal and acoustic comfort and earthquake-resistance.
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 Sustainability and Brick
• Brick is made primarily from clay and shale, which are
abundant natural resources.
• Most manufacturing facilities are located near mining sites-
reducing transportation.
• As fired brick is inert, it can encapsulate many waste materials.
• No wastage of raw materials. Water used in brick production
and heat from kilns are both recycled and reused.
• Brick can assist to get 38 points (possible 110 points of the
LEED-NC) and 24.5 points out of the 136 points of LEED for
Homes
• Brick industry - most significant polluter due to inefficient kilns
used in India.
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Thank You!

Questions?

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