ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE &

DEEP LEARNING

B. Tech. IV Year I semester

1
 What is AI?

Views of AI fall into four categories:

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally
Acting humanly Acting rationally

2
 Acting humanly: Turing Test
• Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence":
• "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave
intelligently?"
• Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation
Game
• A Computer passes the test if a human interrogator,
after posing some written questions, cannot tell
whether the written responses come from a person or
from a computer.

3
 Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling
1960s "cognitive revolution": information-processing
psychology Requires scientific theories of internal
activities of the brain
• How to validate? Requires
1) Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects
(top-down)
or
2) Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-
up)
• The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings
together computer models from AI and experimental
techniques from psychology to construct precise and
testable theories of the human mind.
4
 Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"
• Syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that
always yielded correct conclusions when given correct
premises.
• Ex: “Socrates is a man; All men are mortal; therefore,
Socrates is mortal.” These laws of thought were supposed to
govern the operation of the mind; their study initiated the
field called logic
• Problems:
1. Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical
deliberation
2. What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should
I have?
 Acting rationally: rational agent
• An agent is just something that acts (agent comes from the
Latin agere, to do).
• A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best
outcome or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected
outcome.
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing
• The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given the available information
• Knowledge representation and Reasoning enable Agents to
reach good decisions.
• “laws of thought” approach to AI, emphasis was on correct
inferences.
 Rational Agents
• An agent is an entity that perceives and acts
• This course is about designing rational agents
• Abstractly, an agent is a function from percept histories
to actions:
• [f: P*  A]

• For any given class of environments and tasks, we seek

the agent (or class of agents) with the best performance
• Caveat: computational limitations make perfect
rationality unachievable
•  design best program for given machine resources
 INTELLIGENT AGENTS
• AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS
• An Agent is anything that can be ENVIRONMENT viewed
as perceiving its environment through sensors and
SENSOR acting upon that environment through
actuators.

8
• A Human Agent has eyes, ears, and other organs for
sensors and hands, legs, vocal tract, and so on for
actuators.
• A Robotic Agent might have cameras and infrared range
finders for sensors and various motors for actuators.
• Agent’s behavior is described by the agent function that
maps any given percept (interpret) sequence to an action

9
• Tabulating the Agent Function describes any given
agent, construct this table by trying out all possible
percept sequences and recording which actions the
agent does in response.
• Table is an external characterization of the agent and
Internally, agent function for an artificial agent will be
implemented by an agent program.
• Agent function is an abstract mathematical description
• Ex: vacuum-cleaner Agent world shown in Figure 2.2.
This world is so simple that we can describe everything
that happens; world has just two locations: squares A
and B.

10
Figure 2.2 A vacuum-cleaner world with just two locations.

Figure 2.3 Partial tabulation of a simple agent function for the vacuum-cleaner world
shown in Figure 2.2. 11
 GOOD BEHAVIOR: THE CONCEPT OF RATIONALITY
• Rational Agent:
• It is one that does the right thing - conceptually speaking,
every entry in the table for the agent function is filled out
correctly.
• An agent should strive to "do the right thing", based on what
it can perceive and the actions it can perform.
• Performance measure: An objective criterion for success of
an agent's behavior
• Ex: Performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be
amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of
electricity consumed, amount of noise generated, etc.

12
RATIONALITY
What is rational at any given time depends on four things:
• The performance measure that defines the criterion of
success.
• The agent’s prior knowledge of the environment.
• The actions that the agent can perform.
• The agent’s percept sequence to date.
Rational Agent: For each possible percept sequence, a
rational agent should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given the evidence
provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in
knowledge the agent has.

13
• As a general rule, it is better to design performance
measures according to what one actually wants in the
environment, rather than according to how one thinks
the agent should behave.

THE NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTS

• Think about task environments, which are essentially
the “problems” to which rational agents are the
“solutions.”

14
 PEAS (PERFORMANCE, ENVIRONMENT, ACTUATORS,
SENSORS) DESCRIPTION
• The vacuum world was a simple example; let us consider a
more complex problem: an automated taxi driver.
• The full driving task is extremely open-ended.

15
 THE STRUCTURE OF AGENTS
• The job of AI is to design an agent program that
implements the agent function— the mapping from
percepts to actions. We assume this program will run
on some sort of computing device with physical
sensors and actuators—
agent = architecture + program .
• If the program is going to recommend actions like
Walk, the architecture had better have legs.
• Architecture makes the percepts from the sensors
available to the program, runs the program, and feeds
the program’s action choices to the actuators as they
are generated.
16
 Agent programs
• Agent programs take the current percept as input from
the sensors and return an action to the actuators.
• Difference between the agent program, which takes
the current percept as input, and the agent function,
which takes the entire percept history.
• The agent program takes just the current percept as
input because nothing more is available from the
environment;
• if the agent’s actions need to depend on the entire
percept sequence, the agent will have to remember
the percepts.
17
• For example, Figure 2.7 shows a rather trivial agent
program that keeps track of the percept sequence and
then uses it to index into a table of actions to decide
what to do.
• To build a rational agent in this way, as a designers
must construct a table that contains the appropriate
action for every possible percept sequence.

18
• The daunting size of these tables means that
(a) no physical agent in this universe will have the space
to store the table
(b) the designer would not have time to create the table
(c) no agent could ever learn all the right table entries
from its experience, and
(d) even if the environment is simple enough to yield a
feasible table size, the designer still has no guidance
about how to fill in the table entries
For ex: Huge tables of square roots used by engineers
and schoolchildren prior to the 1970s have now been
replaced by a five-line program.

19
• Four basic kinds of agent programs that embody the
principles underlying almost all intelligent systems:
• Simple reflex agents;
• Model-based reflex agents;
• Goal-based agents; and
• Utility-based agents
• Each kind of agent program combines particular
components in particular ways to generate actions
• Explains in general terms how to convert all these agents
into learning agents that can improve the performance
of their components so as to generate better actions.

20
 Simple reflex agents
Ex: the vacuum agent whose agent function is tabulated in Figure 2.3
is a simple reflex agent, because its decision is based only on the
current location and on whether that location contains dirt.
An agent program for this agent is shown in Figure 2.8.
• Simple reflex behaviors occur even in more complex
environments.
• Imagine yourself as the driver of the automated taxi.
• If the car in front brakes and its brake lights come on, then
you should notice this and initiate braking.
• Triggers some established connection in the agent program
to the action “initiate braking.”
• Call such a connection a condition–action rule, written as
if car-in-front-is-braking then initiate-braking
• The INTERPRET-INPUT function generates an abstracted
description of the current state from the percept, and the RULE-
MATCH function returns the first rule in the set of rules that
matches the given state description.

22
• The agent in Fig 2.10 will work only if the correct
decision can be made on the basis of only the current
percept—that is, only if the environment is fully
observable.
• This works if the car in front has a centrally mounted
brake light.
• A simple reflex agent driving behind such a car would
either brake continuously and unnecessarily, or, worse,
never brake at all.
• Infinite loops are often unavoidable for simple reflex
agents operating in partially observable environments.
• Ex: if the vacuum agent perceives [Clean], it might flip a
coin to choose between Left and Right .
23
 Model-based reflex agents
• The most effective way to handle partial observability is for the
agent to keep track of the part of the world it can’t see now.
• Agent should maintain some sort of internal state that depends
on the percept history and thereby reflects at least some of the
unobserved aspects of the current state.
• For the braking problem, the internal state is not too extensive—
just the previous frame from the camera, allowing the agent to
detect when two red lights at the edge of the vehicle go on or
off simultaneously.
• Internal state information requires two kinds of knowledge to be
encoded in the agent program.
• Need some information about how the world evolves
independently of the agent—for example, that an overtaking car
generally will be closer behind than it was a moment ago.
24
• Second, need some information about how the agent’s
own actions affect the world
• Ex: when the agent turns the steering wheel clockwise,
the car turns to the right, or that after driving for five
minutes northbound on the freeway, one is usually
about five miles north of where one was five minutes
ago.
• This knowledge about “how the world works”—whether
implemented in simple Boolean circuits or in complete
scientific theories—is called a model of the world.
• An agent that uses such a model is called a model-based
agent.

25
Figure 2.11 A model-based reflex agent.

26
• The details of how models and states are represented
vary widely depending on the type of environment.
• It is possible for the agent to determine the current state
of a partially observable environment exactly.
• Box labeled “what the world is like now” represents the
agent’s “best guess” (or sometimes best guesses).
• Ex: An automated taxi may not be able to see around the
large truck that has stopped in front of it and can only
guess about what may be causing the hold-up.

27
 Goal-based agents
• Knowing something about the current state of the environment is
not always enough to decide what to do.
• Ex: At a road junction, the taxi can turn left, turn right, or go
straight on.
• The correct decision depends on where the taxi is trying to get to.
• Current state description, the agent needs some sort of goal
information that describes situations that are desirable—for
example, being at the passenger’s destination.
• The agent program can combine this with the model (the same
information as was used in the model based reflex agent) to
choose actions that achieve the goal.
• Figure 2.13 shows the goal-based agent’s structure.
• Goal-based action selection is straightforward,
• Ex: when goal satisfaction results immediately from a single
action. 28
• Sometimes it will be more tricky
• Ex: when the agent has to consider long sequences of
twists and turns in order to find a way to achieve the
goal.
• Search and planning are the subfields of AI devoted to
finding action sequences that achieve the agent’s goals.
• In the reflex agent designs, this information is not
explicitly represented, because the built-in rules map
directly from percepts to actions.
• The reflex agent brakes when it sees brake lights.
• A goal-based agent, reason that if the car in front has its
brake lights on, it will slow down.

29
 Utility-based agents
• Goals alone are not enough to generate high-quality behavior in
most environments.
• Ex: Many action sequences will get the taxi to its destination
(thereby achieving the goal) but some are quicker, safer, more
reliable, or cheaper than others.
• Goals just provide a crude binary distinction between “happy” and
“unhappy” states.
• A more general performance measure should allow a comparison
of different world states according to exactly how happy they
would make the agent.
• Because “happy” does not sound very scientific, economists and
computer scientists use the term utility instead
• Performance measure assigns a score to any given sequence of
environment states, so it can easily distinguish between more and
less desirable ways of getting to the taxi’s destination. 30
• An agent’s utility function is essentially an internalization
of the performance measure.
• It has many advantages in terms of flexibility and learning.
• First, when there are conflicting goals, only some of which
can be achieved (ex: speed and safety), the utility function
specifies the appropriate tradeoff.
• Second, when there are several goals that the agent can
aim for, none of which can be achieved with certainty,
utility provides a way in which the likelihood of success
can be weighed against the importance of the goals.
• A rational utility-based agent chooses the action that
maximizes the expected utility of the action outcomes.

31
Figure 2.14 A model-based, utility-based agent. It uses a model of the world, along
with a utility function that measures its preferences among states of the world.
Then it chooses the action that leads to the best expected utility, where expected
utility is computed by averaging over all possible outcome states, weighted by the
probability of the outcome.

32
 Learning agents
• Described agent programs with various methods for selecting
actions but not explained how the agent programs come into
being.
• Learning has another advantage: it allows the agent to operate in
initially unknown environments and to become more competent
than its initial knowledge alone might allow.
• A learning agent can be divided into four conceptual components,
as shown in Fig. 2.15.
• The most important distinction is between the learning element,
which is responsible for making improvements, and the
performance element, which is responsible for selecting external
actions.
• The performance element is considered to be the entire agent: it
takes in percepts and decides on actions.
33
 Figure 2.15 A general learning agent.
The learning element uses feedback from the critic on how the agent is doing
and determines how the performance element should be modified to do
better in the future.
The design of the learning element depends very much on the design of the
performance element. 34
• Given an agent design, learning mechanisms can be constructed to
improve every part of the agent.
• Ex: A chess program could receive a percept indicating that it has
checkmated its opponent, but it needs a performance standard to
know that this is a good thing.
• The last component of the learning agent is the problem generator.
• The point is that if the performance element had its way, it would
keep doing the actions that are best, given what it knows.
• But if the agent is willing to explore a little and do some perhaps
suboptimal actions in the short run, it might discover much better
actions for the long run.
• The performance element consists of whatever collection of
knowledge and procedures the taxi has for selecting its driving
actions.
• Ex: After the taxi makes a quick left turn across three lanes of traffic,
the critic observes the shocking language used by other drivers.
35
• From this experience, the learning element is able to
formulate a rule saying this was a bad action, and the
performance element is modified by installation of the
new rule.
• The learning element can make changes to any of the
“knowledge” components shown in the agent diagrams.
• Ex: If the taxi exerts a certain braking pressure when
driving on a wet road, then it will soon find out how
much deceleration is actually achieved.
• The external performance standard must inform the
agent that the loss of tips is a negative contribution to
its overall performance; then the agent might be able to
learn that violent maneuvers do not contribute to its
own utility.
36
How the components of agent programs work
• Describe Agent programs (in very high-level terms) as consisting of
various components, whose function it is to answer questions
such as: “What is the world like now?” “What action should I do
now?” “What do my actions do?”
• Place the representations along an axis of increasing complexity
and expressive power—atomic, factored, and structured

37
 Problem solving agents
• problem-solving agent is one kind of goal-based agent.
• Problem-solving agents use atomic representations
• Goal-based agents that use more advanced factored or
structured representations are usually called planning agents
• General-purpose search algorithms that can be used to solve
these problems
• Uninformed search algorithms—algorithms that are given no
information about the problem other than its definition.
• some of these algorithms can solve any solvable problem, none
of them can do so efficiently.
• Informed search algorithms, on the other hand, can do quite
well given some guidance on where to look for solutions.
• More general case—where the agent’s future actions may vary
depending on future percepts.
• It uses the concepts of asymptotic complexity (that is, O()
notation) and NP-completeness. 38
PROBLEM-SOLVING AGENTS
• Intelligent agents are supposed to maximize their performance
measure.
• Imagine an agent in the city of Arad, Romania, enjoying a touring
holiday.
• The agent’s performance measure contains many factors: it wants to
improve its suntan, improve its Romanian, take in the sights, enjoy
the nightlife (such as it is), avoid hangovers, and so on.
• Now, suppose the agent has a nonrefundable ticket to fly out of Bucharest the
following day.
• In that case, it makes sense for the agent to adopt the goal of getting to
Bucharest.
• Goals help organize behavior by limiting the objectives that the agent is trying
to achieve.
• Goal formulation, based on the current situation and the agent’s
performance measure, is the first step in problem solving.
• If it were to consider actions at the level of “move the left foot forward an
inch” or “turn the steering wheel one degree left,” the agent would probably39
• Problem formulation is the process of deciding what actions
and states to consider, given a goal.
• Assume that the agent will consider actions at the level of
driving from one major town to another and Each State
represents a town
• Our agent has now adopted the goal of driving to Bucharest
and is considering where to go from Arad.
• Three roads lead out of Arad, one toward Sibiu, one to
Timisoara, and one to Zerind.
• The agent can use this information to consider subsequent
stages of a hypothetical journey via each of the three towns,
trying to find a journey that eventually gets to Bucharest.
• Once it has found a path on the map from Arad to Bucharest,
it can achieve its goal by carrying out the driving actions.
40
• Assume that the environment is observable, so the agent always knows
the current state.
• Assume the environment is discrete, so at any given state there are only
finitely many actions to choose from.
• This is true for navigating in Romania because each city is connected to a
small number of other cities.
• Assume that the environment is deterministic, so each action has
exactly one outcome. Under ideal conditions, this is true for the agent in
Romania—it means that if it chooses to drive from Arad to Sibiu, it does
end up in Sibiu.
• Ex: Under less than ideal conditions, the agent might plan to drive from
Arad to Sibiu and then to Rimnicu Vilcea but may also need to have a
contingency plan in case it arrives by accident in Zerind instead of Sibiu.

41
• Since only one percept is possible after the first action, the
solution can specify only one possible second action, and so on.
• The process SEARCH of looking for a sequence of actions that
reaches the goal is called search.
• A search algorithm takes a problem as input and returns a
solution in the form of an action sequence.
• Once a solution is found, the actions it recommends can be
carried out.
• This is called the execution phase.
• Thus, we have a simple “formulate, search, execute” design for
the agent, as shown in Figure 3.1.
• After formulating a goal and a problem to solve, the agent calls
a search procedure to solve it.
• An agent that carries out its plans with its eyes closed, so to
speak, must be quite certain of what is going OPEN-LOOP on.
42
 Problem-solving agents

Figure 3.1 A simple problem-solving agent. It first formulates a goal and a problem,
searches for a sequence of actions that would solve the problem, and then executes the
actions one at a time. When this is complete, it formulates another goal and starts over.
43
 Well-defined problems and solutions
• Problem can be defined formally by five components:
• The initial state that the agent starts in.
Ex: The initial state for our agent in Romania might be
described as In(Arad).
• A description of the possible actions available to the agent.
Given a particular state s, ACTIONS(s) returns the set of actions
that can be executed in s.
Ex: from the state In(Arad), the applicable actions are
{Go(Sibiu),Go(Timisoara) Go(Zerind)}.
• RESULT(s, a) that returns the state that results from doing
action a in state s.
• We also use the term successor to refer to any state reachable
from a given state by a single action. Ex: we have
RESULT(In(Arad),Go(Zerind)) = In(Zerind) 44
• State space of the problem—is defined as the set of all states
reachable from the initial state by any sequence of actions.
• A path in the state space is a sequence of states connected by a
sequence of actions.
• The goal test, which determines whether a given state is a goal
state.
• Agent’s goal in Romania is the singleton set {In(Bucharest )}.
• A path cost function that assigns a numeric cost to each path.
• Cost of a path can be described as the sum of the costs of the
individual actions along the path. The step cost of taking action a
in state s to reach state s is denoted by c(s, a, s ).
• The step costs for Romania are shown in Fig. 3.2 as route
distances.
• A solution to a problem is an action sequence that leads from the
initial state to a goal state. Solution quality is measured by the
path cost function, and an optimal solution has the lowest path
cost among all solutions.
45
 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
• The problem-solving approach has been applied to a vast
array of task environments.
• List some of the best known here, distinguishing between
toy and real-world problems.
• A toy problem is intended to illustrate or exercise various
problem-solving methods.
• It can be given a concise, exact description and hence is
usable by different researchers to compare the performance
of algorithms.
• A real-world problem is one whose solutions people
actually care about.
• Such problems tend not to have a single agreed-upon
description, but we can give the general flavor of their
formulations. 46
 8-puzzle
• The 8-puzzle, an instance of which is shown in Figure 3.4, consists
of a 3×3 board with eight numbered tiles and a blank space.
A tile adjacent to the blank space can slide into the space.
The object is to reach a specified goal state, such as the one
shown on the right of the figure.
The standard formulation is as follows:
• States: A state description specifies the location of each of the
eight tiles and the blank in one of the nine squares.
• Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state. Note
that any given goal can be reached from exactly half of the
possible initial states (Exercise 3.4).
• Actions: The simplest formulation defines the actions as
movements of the blank space Left, Right, Up, or Down. Different
subsets of these are possible depending on where the blank is.
47
• Transition model: Given a state and action, this returns the
resulting state; for example, if we apply Left to the start state
in Figure 3.4, the resulting state has the 5 and the blank
switched.
• Goal test: This checks whether the state matches the goal
configuration shown in Figure 3.4. (Other goal configurations
are possible.)
• Path cost: Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the number
of steps in the path.
The 8-puzzle belongs to the family of sliding-block puzzles,
which are often used as test problems for new search
algorithms in AI.
This family is known to be NP-complete, so one does not
expect to find methods significantly better in the worst case
than the search algorithms.
48
• The 8-puzzle has 9!/2=181, 440 reachable states and is easily solved.
• The 15-puzzle (on a 4×4 board) has around 1.3 trillion states, and
random instances can be solved optimally in a few milliseconds by
the best search algorithms.
• The 24-puzzle (on a 5 × 5 board) has around 1025 states, and
random instances take several hours to solve optimally

49
 8-queens problem
• The goal of the 8-queens problem is to place eight queens on
a chessboard such that no queen attacks any other.
• (A queen attacks any piece in the same row, column or
diagonal.)
• Figure 3.5 shows an attempted solution that fails: the queen in
the rightmost column is attacked by the queen at the top left.
• There are two main kinds of formulation.
• An incremental formulation involves operators that augment
the state description, starting with an empty state; for the 8-
queens problem, this means that each action adds a queen to
the state.
• A complete-state formulation starts with all 8 queens on the
board and moves them around. In either case, the path cost is
of no interest because only the final state counts. 50
• The first incremental formulation is the following:
• States: Any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on the board is a
state.
• Initial state: No queens on the board.
• Actions: Add a queen to any empty square.
• Transition model: Returns the board with a queen added to the
specified square.
• Goal test: 8 queens are on the board, none attacked.
This formulation has 64 ・ 63 ・ ・ ・ 57 ≈ 1.8×1014 possible
sequences to investigate. Prohibit placing a queen in any square
that is already attacked:
• States: All possible arrangements of n queens (0 ≤ n ≤ 8), one
per column in the leftmost n columns, with no queen attacking
another.
• Actions: Add a queen to any square in the leftmost empty
column such that it is not attacked by any other queen. 51
• This formulation reduces the 8-queens state space from 1.8×1014
to just 2,057, and solutions are easy to find.
• For 100 queens the reduction is from roughly 10400 states to
about 1052 states a big improvement, but not enough to make the
problem tractable.

52
 Real-world problems- ROUTE-FINDING PROBLEM
• Route-finding problem is defined in terms of specified
locations and transitions along links between them.
• Route-finding algorithms are used in a variety of
applications. Some, such as Web sites and in-car
systems that provide driving directions, are relatively
straightforward extensions of the Romania example.
• Others, such as routing video streams in computer
networks, military operations planning, and airline
travel-planning systems, involve much more complex
specifications.
• Consider the airline travel problems that must be
solved by a travel-planning Web site: 53
• States: Each state obviously includes a location (e.g., an airport) and
the current time.
Furthermore, because the cost of an action (a flight segment) may
depend on previous segments, their fare bases, and their status as
domestic or international, the state must record extra information
about these “historical” aspects.
• Initial state: This is specified by the user’s query.
• Actions: Take any flight from the current location, in any seat class,
leaving after the current time, leaving enough time for within-
airport transfer if needed.
• Transition model: The state resulting from taking a flight will have
the flight’s destination as the current location and the flight’s arrival
time as the current time.
• Goal test: Are we at the final destination specified by the user?
• Path cost: This depends on monetary cost, waiting time, flight time,
customs and immigration procedures, seat quality, time of day, type
of airplane, frequent-flyer mileage awards, and so on. 54