Research Methodology

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 Course Learning Objectives:
The students will be able to
1 To give an overview of the research methodology and explain the technique of defining
a research problem and explain the basic ethics in research.

2 To develop a suitable outline for research studies through various sources of

information from literature review and data collection.

3 To develop an understanding of the results and on analysis of the work carried.

4 To Demonstrate enhanced Scientific writing skills.

5 To Develop an Understanding on Various Intellectual Property Rights and importance of

filing patents.

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Total Unit: V

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 Introduction:
Research is an essential and powerful tool in learning mankind towards progress.
Scientific research leads to progress in the fields of life. New products, new facts, new concepts & new ways of finding things
are being found due to ever increasing significant research in the physical, the biological, the social & the psychological fields.

1. Physical Sciences: New Technologies and Concepts

Quantum Physics: Research in quantum mechanics has led to groundbreaking technologies like quantum
computers, which promise to revolutionize fields such as cryptography, data processing, and artificial
intelligence.
Nanotechnology: advanced materials, graphene, medical devices

2. Biological Sciences: New Discoveries in Health and Medicine

Ultra laser surgery, genetic disease recovery by changing genes with precision, Vaccines:

3. Cross-Disciplinary Research:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Healthcare: Research that combines computer science (AI) and biology has led to
the development of AI-driven diagnostic tools that can detect diseases, such as cancer, from medical images
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more accurately than humans.
 Meaning of Research :
Re + Search  search again (Search of Knowledge)
Research is a scientific way of answering questions and validating/testing hypothesis.

Research can be defined as

• “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
• Systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
• Exploration of unknown phenomena for scientific, technological, or social advancements.
• “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
• A systematic efforts of gathering, analysing, and interpreting the problems confronted by humanity.
• A thinking process and scientific method of studying a problem and finding solution.
• a movement from the known to the unknown.

Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast
areas of research in other disciplines such as languages, literature,
history and sociology. 10
 Objectives of Research
Purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedure.
Main aim of research is to find the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as
yet.
Objectives of Research can be grouped under following heads:
1. Exploratory or Formulative : To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it.

2. Descriptive: To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group.
3. Diagnostic: To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.

4. Hypothesis-testing: To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

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 Exploratory or Formulative

1.Gain Familiarity with a Phenomenon:

Exploratory research is often used when a researcher or an organization encounters a
new problem or issue and needs to become familiar with it. This type of research doesn't
aim to provide conclusive results but helps in understanding the nature of the issue at
hand.
Example 1: A company notices a decline in customer engagement with their product but
doesn’t know why. Through exploratory research, such as conducting informal interviews
and surveys, they might discover that customers feel the product is outdated or difficult
to use. This provides initial insights into what might be causing the problem and leads to
more specific, focused research on improving customer satisfaction.

In healthcare, exploratory research is often used to identify early-stage problems or trends. For instance, if a new health issue
arises, such as an unknown disease or an unexpected side effect of a medication, researchers might initially conduct
exploratory research to better understand its scope, causes, and effects. This could involve interviewing patients, collecting
initial health data, and reviewing symptoms. The insights gained from this exploration provide a foundation for more focused
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clinical trials or studies.
2. Achieve New Insights:
Exploratory research helps to uncover new ideas or perspectives that were previously unknown. It is often used when
existing knowledge is limited, or the subject is novel, requiring flexibility and open-ended inquiry.
Example: In the tech industry, a team working on virtual reality (VR) may conduct exploratory research to understand how
users interact with the new technology. They might observe users during VR sessions, conduct focus groups, or review
feedback. This allows the researchers to gain insights into user experience, discomfort points, and preferences, which can
then guide the development of more user-friendly VR applications.

Characteristics of Exploratory/Formulative Research:

• Flexible and Open-Ended: No strict structure is followed;
researchers remain open to whatever findings might emerge.
• Unstructured Data Collection: Methods like informal
interviews, focus groups, and observations are commonly used.
• Developing Hypotheses: While the research is not aimed at
testing hypotheses, it helps in forming them for future studies.

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 Descriptive Research
The objective of descriptive research is to provide a detailed, factual, and accurate picture of characteristics, behaviors, or
phenomena in a specific population or context. It focuses on "what is" rather than "why" or "how," aiming to describe
existing conditions without manipulating the study environment.

1. Describe Characteristics or Phenomena: To give a detailed description of characteristics or distinction of a population,

group, or phenomenon.
Example: A researcher may study the demographic characteristics (age, gender, education level) of smartphone users in a
city to understand who uses smartphones the most.

2. Identify Patterns or Trends: To recognize recurring behaviors, patterns, or trends in data.

Example: An educational study might describe students' study habits and identify common patterns, such as whether
most students study in the morning or late at night.

3. Classify and Categorize Data: To classify information systematically, grouping similar entities together.
-Example: In healthcare research, a descriptive study might categorize patients based on their symptoms to identify
common disease patterns.
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 Descriptive Research

4. Provide Insight for Future Research: To build a foundation for further exploratory or experimental research.
Example: A survey might describe the prevalence of a particular mental health issue among teenagers, paving the way for
future research into its causes.

5. Understand the Context or Environment: To describe how certain phenomena behave in a given environment.
Example: A retail business could use descriptive research to analyze customer behavior in different store layouts,
describing how people navigate the store and which products they are drawn to.

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 Diagnostic Research
The objective of diagnostic research is to determine the causes of a specific problem or situation. It goes beyond merely
describing a phenomenon and seeks to identify the factors responsible for the occurrence of certain outcomes. Diagnostic
research helps in pinpointing the underlying issues and offering insights for solutions.

Key Objectives of Diagnostic Research:

1.Identify Causes of a Problem:
1. The primary goal is to uncover the factors or reasons behind an issue or a phenomenon.
2. Example: A company experiencing high employee turnover might use diagnostic research to investigate the root
causes, such as job dissatisfaction, poor management practices, or lack of career growth opportunities.
2.Examine Relationships between Variables:
1. Diagnostic research often involves exploring how different factors are related and how they interact to cause the
observed outcome.
2. Example: In healthcare, diagnostic research might be used to identify the factors contributing to increased rates of
diabetes in a population, such as diet, lifestyle, genetics, or environmental factors.
3.Provide Solutions to Identified Problems:
1. Once the causes are identified, diagnostic research aims to provide actionable solutions or recommendations.
2. Example: In education, if diagnostic research reveals that poor academic performance is linked to inadequate
learning resources, solutions such as improving access to textbooks or enhancing teaching methods might be
proposed.
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Example in Detail:
A hospital may observe a sudden increase in patient complaints about long waiting times. Through diagnostic research,
they conduct surveys, interviews, and analyze data to identify the causes, which could include understaffing, inefficient
patient scheduling, or outdated software systems. After identifying the root causes, they propose solutions such as hiring
more staff, improving scheduling systems, and upgrading software.

Conclusion:
Diagnostic research is essential when an organization or researcher seeks to go beyond description and solve problems by
identifying their root causes. It is commonly used in fields like healthcare, education, business, and social sciences where
understanding the why behind issues is critical for developing solutions.

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 Hypothesis-testing
The objective of hypothesis-testing research is to evaluate the validity of a proposed hypothesis by using empirical evidence.
This type of research aims to either confirm or refute a hypothesis by systematically analyzing data, and it is a key component
of scientific inquiry. The focus is on establishing cause-and-effect relationships or determining whether certain variables are
related.
Key Objectives of Hypothesis-Testing Research:
1.Test the Validity of a Hypothesis: The primary goal is to determine whether a specific hypothesis is true or false based on
the data collected.
2.Example: A researcher might hypothesize that a new educational app improves students' reading comprehension skills. The
objective of hypothesis-testing research would be to collect data from students who use the app and analyze it to determine if
there is a significant improvement compared to those who don't use the app.
3.Determine Cause-and-Effect Relationships: This type of research often involves testing whether one variable (the
independent variable) causes a change in another variable (the dependent variable).
4.Example: A pharmaceutical company may hypothesize that a new drug reduces blood pressure in patients. By conducting a
clinical trial where some patients receive the drug and others receive a placebo, the company can test whether the drug
causes a significant reduction in blood pressure. 18
3. Confirm or Reject Theories: Hypothesis-testing research is crucial in validating or disproving existing theories in a given
field.
Example: In physics, a hypothesis could be that increasing the temperature of a material improves its electrical conductivity.
Through experimentation and data analysis, researchers can confirm or refute this theory.

4. Provide Generalizable Results: Hypothesis-testing research often aims to produce results that can be generalized to a
larger population or applied to similar cases.
•Example: A marketing firm might hypothesize that personalized email campaigns increase customer engagement compared
to generic campaigns. By testing this hypothesis on a sample population, they aim to generalize the results to broader
marketing strategies.

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Example in Detail:
In medical research, a scientist may hypothesize that a new exercise regimen reduces the risk of heart disease. To test this
hypothesis, a study is designed where one group of participants follows the regimen and another group does not. Over time,
the researcher collects data on heart disease occurrences in both groups. Statistical analysis is then used to determine
whether the exercise regimen had a significant impact on reducing heart disease risk.
If the data support the hypothesis, the researcher may conclude that the regimen is effective. If the data do not support the
hypothesis, the researcher may either reject the hypothesis or refine it for further testing.
Conclusion:
Hypothesis-testing research is vital for confirming or disproving assumptions, establishing relationships between variables,
and advancing scientific knowledge. It follows a structured, empirical approach and is central to fields like psychology,
medicine, economics, and the natural sciences, where validation of ideas through evidence is key.

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 Motivation in Research:
What makes people to undertake research?

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships,
social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel)
people to perform research operations. 22
 Types of Research
The basic types of research
are as follows: Types of
Research

Descriptive Quantitative Some Other

vs. vs. Type of
Analytical Qualitative Research
social science and
business research

Applied Conceptual
vs. vs.
Fundamental Empirical
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 Descriptive vs. Analytical
•Definition: Descriptive research is a type of research that aims to observe, describe, and document aspects of a
situation as it naturally occurs.
•Purpose: To provide a detailed account or picture of the phenomenon being studied.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research:

• Non-experimental: No manipulation of variables, purely observational.
• Natural Setting: Research occurs in a natural environment.
• Cross-sectional: Often involves a one-time snapshot of data collection, though longitudinal approaches are
possible.
• Quantitative or Qualitative: Can involve surveys, interviews, or observation
Types of Descriptive Research
1.Survey Research:
1. Involves asking questions to respondents (e.g., questionnaires, polls).
2.Case Study:
1. Detailed, in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation.
3.Observational Research:
1. Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.
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Example of Descriptive Research
Advantages of Descriptive Research
•Case Study Example: A study exploring the use of
•Real-world Application: Helps in understanding real-world
smartphones among university students.
problems.
• Objective: To describe smartphone usage patterns.
• Method: Surveys distributed to 200 university students •Rich Data: Provides detailed information that can be used
asking about their daily smartphone activities. to generate hypotheses for future research.
• Findings: 80% use social media apps for more than 3 •Inexpensive: Often less costly compared to experimental
hours per day. 50% report using smartphones primarily research.
for educational purposes.
Limitations of Descriptive Research
Methods Used in Descriptive Research •No Causal Relationships: Descriptive research cannot
1.Surveys & Questionnaires:
1. Structured or semi-structured forms with predefined explain "why" something happens.
questions. •Bias in Data Collection: Surveys and interviews can be
2.Observation:
1. Direct observation without interference, using biased based on the wording or respondent
checklists or notes. interpretation.
3.Archival Research:
1. Analysis of existing data like records, documents, and •Limited Scope: Focuses only on the "what" and "how,"
reports. not on "why" or "what next." 25
 Analytical Research
•Objective: To analyze and interpret data to understand why a phenomenon occurs.
•Approach: Focuses on the cause-and-effect relationship by testing hypotheses.
•Data Collection: Statistical methods, experimentation, comparative analysis.
•Outcome: Provides explanations, insights, and reasons behind observed patterns.
Example:
•An analysis of the relationship between smartphone usage and academic performance among university
students.
•Result: Students who use smartphones for more than 3 hours on social media tend to have lower GPAs
compared to those who spend less time.

Key Differences:
•Descriptive: Answers what and how.
•Analytical: Answers why and what causes the observed phenomenon.
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 Applied vs. Fundamental

•Fundamental Research (or Pure Research): Aimed at gaining knowledge and understanding, without specific
practical applications in mind.
•Applied Research: Focused on solving specific, practical problems using scientific knowledge.

Characteristics of Fundamental Research

•Objective: To advance theoretical knowledge and understanding of basic principles.
•Focus: Developing new theories, concepts, or models.
•Outcome: Provides a foundation for future practical applications.
•Example: Exploring the quantum properties of 2D materials to understand their potential behavior in different
conditions.
Characteristics of Applied Research
•Objective: To address specific, practical issues or problems.
•Focus: Application of theories and models to real-world situations.
•Outcome: Results in technology or processes that have immediate practical benefits.
•Example: Developing nanodevices using 2D materials for more efficient electronic components.
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 Key Differences
Fundamental: Applied:
Nature of Driven by curiosity and knowledge expansion Problem-solving, often directed by industry or
Research: on fundamental properties of objects or societal needs.
event.
Scope: Broad, open-ended, exploring new frontiers. Narrow, focused on practical application and
solution development.
Funding: Usually funded by academic or governmental Funded by industries, businesses, or
bodies. government for specific outcomes.

Examples of Research
•Fundamental Research: Studying the properties of new nanomaterials for potential use in future technologies.
•Applied Research: Designing a new type of solar cell using nanomaterials to increase efficiency and reduce
costs.
Importance of Both in Scientific Progress
•Fundamental Research: Acts as the building block for future innovations.
•Applied Research: Translates the knowledge gained from fundamental research into tangible solutions.
Conclusion
•Both types of research are vital in science and technology.
•Fundamental research fuels the engine of scientific discovery, while applied research brings those discoveries
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to life through innovation and problem-solving.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative

•Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding concepts, experiences, or phenomena.

•Quantitative Research: Focuses on quantifying relationships, behaviors, or characteristics.

Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
•Objective: To explore underlying meanings,
motivations, and experiences. •Objective: To quantify data and generalize results from a
sample to a population.
•Nature: Non-numerical, more exploratory.
•Nature: Numerical, involves statistical analysis.
•Methods: Interviews, focus groups, observations,
case studies. •Methods: Surveys, experiments, questionnaires.
•Outcome: Insights into people’s attitudes, •Outcome: Provides measurable data for decision-
behaviors, and experiences. making.
Example:
Example: •A survey of 500 students to measure the impact of online
learning on academic performance, using GPA as a
•A study interviewing teachers to understand their
measure.
experiences with online teaching during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
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 Key Differences
Qualitative Quantitative
Focus Why, how How many, how much
Data Words, images Numbers, statistics
Approach: Exploratory Conclusive

Methods: Open-ended Structured

Analysis: Thematic, narrative Statistical
Examples 1. Case Study: Understanding how individuals cope 1. Survey: Measuring customer satisfaction on a
with stress at work. scale of 1 to 10.
2. Ethnographic Study: Observing how a community 2. Experimental Study: Testing the effectiveness
interacts during a social event. of a new drug on 100 patients.

Strengths and Strengths: Provides depth, context, and Strengths: Provides clear, concise, and objective
Weaknesses understanding of a topic. data.
Weaknesses: Results are subjective, harder to Weaknesses: Can miss the full context behind
generalize. numbers.

When to Use When you want to explore new ideas or gain in-depth When you need precise data, measurable
understanding of experiences. outcomes, and statistical comparisons.
Conclusion •Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are essential in the scientific and academic fields.
•They complement each other and can often be used together (mixed-methods approach) to provide a
comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
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 Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual Research Empirical Research
Definition: Research that develops ideas and concepts based Research based on actual experiments or
on existing knowledge. observations.

Methods: Literature reviews, theoretical analysis, and Data collection, experimentation, and surveys.
argumentation.

Outcome: Builds frameworks or models that enhance Provides concrete evidence for or against a
understanding of topics. hypothesis.

Example: Developing a theoretical model for economic Conducting a study to test the relationship
growth based on historical trends and concepts. between physical activity and academic
performance in schoolchildren.

When to • When developing a new theory or exploring • When testing a theory or hypothesis.
Use abstract ideas. • Best for research questions that require
• Often used at the beginning stages of a data collection to provide answers.
research project.

Conclusion • Both conceptual and empirical research play crucial roles in advancing knowledge.
• Conceptual research is foundational, while empirical research validates or refutes theories
through data.
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 Some Other Type of Research

1. Exploratory Research
•Definition: A research approach that seeks to investigate a problem that has not been clearly
defined.
•Objective: To gain a better understanding of an issue, often laying the groundwork for further
studies.
•Methods: Literature reviews, interviews, focus groups.
•Example: Exploring the effects of social media usage on student performance before developing
a focused hypothesis.
2. Explanatory Research
•Definition: Research aimed at explaining why or how something happens.
•Objective: To establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
•Methods: Experiments, longitudinal studies.
•Example: Studying how different teaching methods influence student learning outcomes.
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 3. Action Research
•Definition: Research conducted by individuals or groups to solve an immediate problem or improve a situation.
•Objective: To implement changes while conducting the research.
•Methods: Participatory observation, iterative problem-solving.
•Example: Teachers implementing and evaluating new classroom management techniques to enhance student
engagement.
4. Cross-Sectional Research
•Definition: Research that examines a particular population at a single point in time.
•Objective: To identify trends, patterns, and relationships at a specific moment.
•Methods: Surveys, snapshot studies.
•Example: A survey conducted to assess public opinion on a policy issue at one point in time.

5. Experimental Research
•Definition: Research that manipulates variables to observe the effect on a particular outcome.
•Objective: To test hypotheses and determine causality.
•Methods: Controlled experiments, random trials.
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•Example: Testing a new drug’s efficacy by comparing a treatment group with a control group.
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 Types of Research
The basic types of research
Types of Recap….
are as follows:
Research

Quantitative
Descriptive vs. Some Other
vs. Qualitative Type of
Analytical •Focuses on understanding concepts, Research
experiences, or phenomena. • Exploratory
• what and how. •Focuses on quantifying relationships, • Explanatory
• why and what causes behaviors, or characteristics.

• Understanding of basic Applied Conceptual

principles vs. vs.
•Application of theories and Fundamental Empirical
models to real-world situations. Literature reviews, theoretical analysis, and argumentation
Data collection, experimentation, and surveys. 35
 methods used for data
Research collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
Approaches
Qualitative Quantitative

concerned with subjective assessment of rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal

attitudes, opinions and behaviour. and rigid fashion.

• Characteristics:
Characteristics:
• Subjective • Objective
• Exploratory in nature • Uses structured tools (e.g., surveys,
• Non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, experiments)
• Numerical data
observations)

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 Qualitative Approach
Definition: Focuses on understanding meaning, experiences, and concepts

Example:
1. Exploring Wave-Particle Duality (Quantum Mechanics)
•Description: In the early 20th century, scientists like Niels Bohr and
Louis de Broglie used qualitative reasoning to understand wave-
particle duality. They explored the dual nature of light (as both a
wave and a particle) without the need for immediate quantitative
analysis.
•Qualitative Focus: The thought experiments such as Schrödinger's
cat were based on conceptual reasoning about the behavior of
quantum particles without direct measurements.
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 Quantitative Approach
Definition: Focuses on quantifying data and generalizing results
Double-Slit Experiment – Quantifying Interference Patterns
•Description: The double-slit experiment demonstrates the wave-particle duality of light and electrons.
Quantitative measurements are taken of the interference patterns formed when particles or light waves pass
through two slits.
•Quantitative Focus: The intensity of light or electron waves at different positions on the detection screen is
measured using detectors, resulting in data points that describe the interference pattern.
•Data Analysis: This data is quantitatively analyzed to understand how wavelength, slit width, and other
parameters affect the pattern. The mathematical model of wave interference is used to fit the data, leading to
precise verification of quantum mechanical predictions.

Simulation
Experimental
Inferential
much greater control over the involves the construction of an
survey research population is research environment and in this artificial environment within which
studied (questioned or observed) case some variables are relevant information and data can
to determine its characteristics  manipulated to observe their effect be generated under controlled
come to a conclusion on other variables. condition.
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 Significance of Research
1. Foundation for Progress: Research fosters innovation and progress by promoting inquiry and problem-
solving, leading to new discoveries and advancements.
2. Economic Policy Support: It provides a basis for government decisions by analyzing economic
conditions, helping allocate resources and devise effective policies.
3. Business Decision-Making: Research aids businesses in market analysis, sales forecasting, operations
optimization, and strategic planning, replacing intuition with scientific decisions.
4. Problem Solving: In both government and industry, research helps solve operational challenges, from
resource allocation to optimizing business processes.
5. Social Science Contribution: It helps understand and address social issues, contributing to improved
human relations and practical societal solutions.
6. Intellectual Growth: Research develops logical and scientific thinking habits, and advances knowledge
for its own sake or for practical applications.
7. Career Development: For students and professionals, research can serve as a means of career
advancement, providing new opportunities and intellectual satisfaction. 40
 Research Method And Research Methodology
Research Method refers to the specific Research Methodology, on the other hand,
techniques or procedures used to collect refers to the theoretical framework that guides
and analyze data in a study. It includes the the research process. It involves the underlying
tools and processes that researchers use to principles, logic, and philosophical assumptions
gather information, such as experiments, that inform the choice of research methods.
surveys, interviews, and case studies. Research methodology deals with why
Research methods focus on how the particular methods are chosen and how they fit
research will be conducted into the larger structure of the research.
Research Methodology
Experimental research Case study research Exploratory research Descriptive research
• Planning
• Experimentation
• Data collection
• Analysis
• Interpretation

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Research Method
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 Research and Scientific Method
•Qualitative: Descriptive, focuses on understanding phenomena.
•Quantitative: Involves data collection and statistical analysis.
•Mixed-Methods: Combination of both approaches.
The Scientific Method
Key Steps:
1.Observation: Identify a phenomenon or problem.
2.Hypothesis: Formulate a testable statement or prediction.
3.Experimentation: Design and conduct experiments to test the hypothesis.
4.Data Collection: Gather quantitative/qualitative data from experiments.
5.Analysis: Interpret data, look for patterns, relationships, or anomalies.
6.Conclusion: Accept or reject the hypothesis based on the data.
7.Replication: Repeat the process to verify results.
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 Research Process
1. Identify Research Problem - Define the problem or research question.
2. Review Literature - Conduct background research to understand existing knowledge.
3. Formulate Hypothesis/Objective - Develop a testable hypothesis or define clear
research objectives.
4. Research Design & Methodology - Choose methods (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed)
and plan your research process.
5. Data Collection - Gather data using experiments, surveys, observations, etc.
6. Data Analysis - Analyze collected data using appropriate tools and techniques.
7. Interpret Results - Interpret findings, validate or reject the hypothesis.
8. Report & Publishing Results - Present results in a structured report and provide
conclusions or recommendations.

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Photodetectors
Photodetectors have Schematic Ref: Adv. Mater.
demanding Technol. 2017, 1700005
applications in
various fields.

Single nanowire / nanowire Renewable

array heterostructure Energy

• Enhanced optoelectronic Photodetector

performance Application
• Broadening of spectral Artificial Water
range Splitting 45
 Research Process Flow Chart

Example:
High Efficiency Solar Cell
Highest Efficiency ~ 22 %
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Recap….

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 Criteria of Good Research
1. Clearly defined purpose: The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.
2. Detailed elaboration: The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail
to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
3. Systematic design with defined objective: The procedural design of the research should
be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. Completeness: The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. Appropriate analysis: The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and
reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusive: Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Productive: Contribute to knowledge or produce technology. 48
 Criteria of Good Research
The another key criteria of good research include:
1.Good research is systematic: It follows a structured approach with clearly defined steps.
2.Good research is logical: The conclusions are based on sound reasoning and follow from the
data or hypotheses.
3.Good research is empirical: It relies on observable and measurable evidence gathered
through experimentation or observation.
4.Good research is replicable: The research can be repeated by others with similar results,
ensuring its reliability.
5. Good research contribute to knowledge
- The research should add value to the field, either by solving problems, testing theories, or
providing new insights.
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Defining the Research
Problem

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 What is a Research Problem?
•Definition:
• A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that a
researcher aims to address.
•It forms the foundation of research objectives and hypotheses.

Selecting the Research Problem: Necessity of Defining the Problem

Criteria for Selection: Why Defining is Crucial:

•Relevance to field and current trends • Ensures clarity and focus of research
•Feasibility in terms of resources and time • Prevents ambiguous research objectives
•Personal interest and expertise • Aids in proper resource allocation
•Availability of data • Helps in forming appropriate
•Ethical considerations methodology
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 Techniques for Defining a Research Problem

1. Statement of the Problem: Clearly articulate the problem in one or two sentences.

2. Background Knowledge: Review of literature to understand what is already known.

3. Identify Gaps: Determine areas where knowledge is lacking.

4. Formulate Hypotheses: Tentative explanation that addresses the problem.

5. Set Objectives: Define what the research aims to achieve.

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 Example 1: Scientific Research Problem

•Problem: Understanding the thermal stability of 2D materials for high-temperature

Graphene oxide
applications.
•Background: Existing research highlights good electrical

properties but lacks data on high-temp stability.

•Gap: Few studies address the behavior of these

materials at higher temperatures.

•Objective: Investigate thermal stability and propose

methods to enhance it. Ref: google image 53

 Example 2: Social Science Research Problem
•Problem: Impact of social media on youth mental health.

•Background: Research has shown

correlations but no concrete cause-effect
‘Effect of Social media on
analysis. mental health’ is missing?

•Gap: The effect of specific types of social

media use (e.g., passive vs. active) is not
well explored.
•Objective: Study the different impacts of
various types of social media use on
mental health.
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 Illustration of Technique: Defining a Research Problem

•Step 1: Identify broad problem area (e.g., health effects of nanomaterials)

•Step 2: Narrow down to a specific issue (e.g., toxicity of graphene in bio-medical
applications)
•Step 3: State the problem clearly (e.g., Limited data on how graphene nanoparticles
interact with human cells)
•Step 4: Review literature (e.g., Existing studies focus on animal models, not human cells)
•Step 5: Establish research objectives (e.g., To explore how graphene nanoparticles affect
human cell viability)

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 Key Takeaways

•Defining the problem is the first step

towards meaningful research.
•A well-defined problem guides the research
design, methodology, and focus.
•Choosing a relevant and feasible problem
ensures the success of the project.
•Using proper techniques to define the
problem helps in setting clear objectives.

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ETHICS

Research Effort Research Output

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 ETHICS
 Ethics is the discipline dealing with what is good or bad and
with moral duty and obligation.
 A set of moral principles or values put in place for the
betterment of all.
 Conforming to professional standards of conduct.
“Ethics is the disciplined study or morality….and morality asks the question…what
should one’s behavior be”. Jeff Cooper Albany Medical Center, Ethical Decision
Making, 2001,

“Greek ethos ‘character’ is the systematic study of value concepts—good, bad,

right, wrong and the general principles that justify applying these concepts” Joan
E. Sieber Planning Ethically Responsible Research.

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 Is ethics same as LAW?

Ethics is the responsibility of the INDIVIDUAL . It is more than

adherence to LAW. A person may indulge in an unethical practice,
but unless caught, law cannot come into force !

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 So what does ethics have to do with research?
Research ethics
 Ethics are the set of rules that govern our expectations of our own
and others’ behavior.
 Research ethics are the set of ethical guidelines that guides us on
how scientific research should be conducted and disseminated.
 Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific
researchers as a guideline for responsibly conducting the research.
 Research that involves human subjects or contributors rears
distinctive and multifaceted ethical concerns.
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 Research ethics is unambiguously concerned in the examination of
ethical issues that are upraised when individuals are involved as
participants in the study.
 Ethics is about creating a mutually respectful relationship with the
research population
 Subjects are pleased to participate
 Community regards the conclusions as constructive
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 Why is research ethics important?

 It is a reflection of respect for those who ‘take part’ in research

 It ensures that no unreasonable, unsafe or thoughtless demands are made by
researchers
 It ensures sufficient knowledge is shared by all concerned
 It imposes a common standard in all the above respect
 It has become the norm as an expectation for research activity
 A professional requirement for practitioners in some disciplines e.g. psychology
 A requirement to comply with external agencies to obtain funding
 Ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public
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 Example: Lack of Informed Consent -
An ethically insensitive researcher
Conducting research on human participants
Can leave the research setting in without fully informing them of the study's
risks, purposes, and potential impacts. For
pandemonium including
example, in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
 the researcher (1932-1972), African American men with
syphilis were misled and not given proper
 the institution
treatment, even after penicillin became

 the cause that he/she seeks available. This is an ethically insensitive

practice as participants were not treated
to promote with respect
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Three important objectives of research ethics

Ø To guard/protect human participants, their dignity, rights and

welfare .

Ø To make sure that research is directed in a manner that assists

welfares of persons, groups and/or civilization as a whole.

Ø To inspect particular research events and schemes for their ethical

reliability, considering issues such as the controlling risk, protection

of privacy and the progression of informed consent. 64

What Compromises Ethics or makes people ignore it?
1. Power
2. Greed NIMBY Aspect: Local
communities often resist research
3. Fear projects due to perceived or real
risks to their environment, health,
4. Not-in-my-back-yard (NIMBY) or lifestyle. For example, a
5. Everybody is doing it community may oppose a
research facility dealing with
6. It does not hurt anybody nuclear waste, fearing radiation
exposure.

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1. Honesty
Being honest with the beneficiaries and respondents, about the findings and
methodology of the research, honest with other direct and indirect stakeholders, honest
with data.
Case study 1
Two researchers have made some measurements on a
new material. The data points are as shown. To prove
their hypothesis the results should lie on the curve
shown. The two students considered omitting the two
data points which were off the theoretical curve.
 It is not ethical as honest data has not been presented.
 Should declare the outliers
 Explain reason for outliers. 67
Protecting anonymity

The identity of the participants must be kept anonymous. This means not
revealing name, address, case, religion etc. of the respondent.

Case study

A researcher plans to compare alcohol abuse among college freshman

and seniors. Because she may want to reinterview some subjects later,
she plans to write their names and phone numbers on their data sheets.
She plans to promise confidentiality, so that subjects will trust her, and to
keep the data in her dorm room in a locked file. But, she disclose the
data. 68
 Unethical as violating principles of consent and confidentiality
 Data can be used for a secondary purpose which was not first
considered as long as
- informed consent for sharing has been given
- identities anonymized
- due consideration to access restrictions

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2. Ethical Issues Related to Authorship
•Authorship Credit: Only contributors should be credited.
•Order of Authors: The first author typically has the largest contribution.
•Ghost Authorship: Failing to acknowledge significant contributors is
unethical.
Case study
Four friends decide to work together on a research project during the
vacation. One of them went abroad during the vacation and did not
contribute to the research. The friends include all 4 names in a
presentation made at a scientific congress
 Unethical as only those who contributed intellectually should be cited as authors
 Those who contribute in other ways may be acknowledged
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Ethics in Engineering Research – Three key points

•Honesty: Report data truthfully and transparently.

•Integrity: Keep promises, be sincere, and act with consistency.
•Objectivity: Avoid bias in experimental design and data interpretation.

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Some general Points to summarize:
Ethics
• Moral principle of right and wrong.
• Not absolute; may vary by person, by time, by place.
• And may be in competition with each other.

Research Ethics
• Incorporating ethical principles into research practice.
• May involve a balance between and within principles and practices
• All stages, all those involved, from inception of research through to
completion and publication of results and beyond. 72
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Research Misconduct- The Big three
Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in
proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research
results.

(1) Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

(2) Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or

changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately
represented in the research record.

(3) Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or

words without giving appropriate credit.

Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion. 74

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