Chapter 1

Adjusting to Modern Life

 The Paradox of Progress

• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
– Describe four examples of the paradox of
progress.
– Explain what is meant by the paradox of
progress and how theorists have
explained it.
The Paradox of Progress, continued

• What is the “Paradox of Progress”?

– Today, we enjoy more technological
advances, more leisure time and choices
than ever before.
– However, we are not happier. In fact, our
perceived quality of life seems to be
worse.
• Why is this so?
Paradox of Progress, continued
• Possible explanations:
– Traditional sources of emotional security,
such as family, community and religion have
been lost.
– We are overwhelmed by rapid cultural
change.
– Mental demands of modern life have
become too complex.
– Excessive materialism has weakened social
ties, makes us insecure and has undermined
our sense of well-being.
 The Search for Direction
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
– Provide some examples of people’s
search for direction.
– Describe four problems that are common
to popular self-help books.
– Summarize advice about what to look for
in quality self-help books.
– Summarize the philosophy underlying this
textbook.
 The Search for Direction
• The greatest challenge of modern life may be
our search for meaning in life or a sense of
direction.
• In desperation, people turn to many ineffective
and/or self-destructive sources for
enlightenment (e.g., radio personalities, cults)
• One of the most prominent sources is self-help
books.
• But, how valuable are they?
The Search for Direction, continued
• The value of self-help books.
– Excellent self-help books do exist. However,
many are not effective because:
• their message is too vague to be useful;
• they are not based on solid, scientific
research; and
• they don’t provide explicit directions for
changing behavior.
• they encourage a self-centered approach
to life.
The Search for Direction, continued
• What to look for in a good self-help book:
1. Clarity in communication.
2. Books that are realistic - that don’t promise
too much.
3. Advice that is grounded in a theoretical
framework supported by research.
4. Explicit directions for changing behavior.
5. Books that focus on a particular kind of
problem or behavior.
 The Psychology of Adjustment
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
– Describe the two key facets of psychology.
– Explain the concept of adjustment.
 The Psychology of Adjustment
• Psychology is “the science that studies
behavior and the physiological and mental
processes that underlie it, and it is the
profession that applies the accumulated
knowledge of this science to practical
problems”.
• Adjustment is “the psychological processes
through which people manage or cope with the
demands and challenges of everyday life”.
 The Scientific Approach to Behavior
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
– Explain the nature of empiricism.
– Explain two advantages of the scientific
approach to understanding behavior.
– Describe the experimental method,
distinguishing between independent and
dependent variables and between
experimental and control groups.
 The Scientific Approach to Behavior
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
– Distinguish between positive and negative
correlation and explain what the size of a
correlation coefficient means.
– Describe three correlational research
methods.
– Compare the advantages and disadvantages
of experimental versus correlational
research.
 The Scientific Approach to Behavior

• Empiricism is “the premise that knowledge

should be acquired through observation”.
• Thus, the conclusions of scientific psychology
are based on careful, systemic observation
rather than speculation or “common sense”.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Advantages of the scientific approach:
1. Clarity and precision – empiricism demands
that scientists state exactly what they are
referring to in their hypothesis.
2. Relative intolerance for error.
• Scientists’ ideas are subjected to
empirical tests.
• Their ideas and research are scrutinized
by other scientists.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Experimental research: looking for causes.
– The experiment is “a research method in
which the investigator manipulates one
(independent) variable under carefully
controlled conditions, and observes whether
any changes occur in a second (dependent)
variable as a result”.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• An independent variable – “is a condition or
event that an experimenter varies in order to
see its impact on another variable”.
– It is the variable the researcher manipulates
in the experiment.
• The dependent variable – “is the variable that
is thought to be affected by the manipulations of
the independent variable”.
– It is usually a measurement of behavior.
• See Schachter’s (1959) study in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 The basic elements of an experiment. This diagram provides an overview of the key features
of the experimental method, as illustrated by Schachter’s study of anxiety and affiliation. The logic of the
experiment rests on treating the experimental and control groups alike except for the manipulation of the
independent variable.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• The experimental group – “consists of the
subjects who receive some special treatment in
regard to the independent variable”.
– In Schachter’s (1959) study, the
experimental group was told the shocks
would be painful.
• The control group – “consists of similar
subjects who do not receive the special
treatment given to the experimental group”.
– In Schachter’s (1959) study, the control
group was told the shocks would not be
painful.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Determining cause and effect in experiments.
– If the experimental and control groups are
alike in every way except for the treatment
from the independent variable (whether
shock will be painful), and
– If a difference in the dependent variable is
found (e.g., desire to affiliate),
– This means that the difference in their
response must be due to the independent
variable (e.g., fear of the painful shock).
The Scientific Approach, continued
• The following illustrates how experiments can
be used to draw causal conclusions.
Does Marijuana Impair Memory?

PLAY VIDEO
The Scientific Approach, continued
• The advantage of using experiments is that:
– precise control allows cause and effect
conclusions to be drawn.
• The disadvantage of using experiments is that:
– there are some variables of interest that can
not, for ethical reasons, be manipulated in an
experiment.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Correlational Research: Looking for Links.
– A correlation exists when two variables are
related to each other.
– A correlation coefficient is “a numerical
index of the degree of relationship that exists
between two variables”.
– It provides two pieces of information:
1. How strongly related two variables are.
2. The direction (positive or negative) of the
relationship.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Positive Correlations – “indicate that two
variables covary in the same direction”.
– High scores on variable x are related to high
scores on variable y, and low scores on
variable x are related to low scores on
variable y.
• Negative Correlations – “indicate that two
variables covary in the opposite direction”.
– High scores on variable x are related to low
scores on variable y (see Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Positive and negative correlations. Variables are positively correlated if they tend to increase
and decrease together and are negatively correlated if one variable tends to increase when the other
decreases. Hence, the terms positive correlation and negative correlation refer to the direction of the
relationship between two variables.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Strength of the correlation is indicated by the
size of the correlation coefficient.
• Correlation coefficients can range from 0 to
+1.00 (for positive correlations); and from 0 to
-1.00 (for negative correlations).
• Coefficients near 0 indicate there is no
association, or a very weak association
between variables.
• Coefficients near either +1.00 or -1.00,
indicate strong associations (see Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4 Interpreting correlation coefficients. The magnitude of a correlation coefficient indicates the
strength of the relationship between two variables. The closer a correlation is to either +1.00 or -1.00, the
stronger the relationship between the variables. The square of a correlation, which is graphed here, is an
index of the correlation’s strength and predictive power.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Common methods of finding correlations
between variables include:
– Naturalistic observation – “careful
observation of behavior without intervening
directly with the subjects”.
– Case studies – “in-depth investigation of
an individual participant”.
– Surveys – “structured questionnaires
designed to solicit information about
specific aspects of participants’ behavior”.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Advantages of using correlations.
– The main advantage of correlations is that
they allow us to explore variables not
suitable for experimental research.
• (e.g., it may not be ethical to purposely
manipulate some variables.)
– Thus, correlations allow investigation of a
broader array of psychological phenomena
than is possible in experimental research.
The Scientific Approach, continued
• Disadvantages of using correlations.
– Correlations only tell us that two variables
are related, not how the two variables are
related.
• x could be causing changes in y
• y could be causing changes in x, or
• z, a third variable, could be causing
changes in x and y (see Figure 1.7).
– Thus, we cannot determine cause and effect
from correlations alone.
Figure 1.7 Possible causal relations between correlated variables. When two variables are correlated,
there are several possible explanations. It could be that x causes y, that y causes x, or that a third variable,
z, causes changes in both x and y. As the correlation between marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction
illustrates, the correlation itself does not provide the answer.
The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
– Discuss the prevalence of reported
happiness in modern society.
– List the various factors that are surprisingly
unrelated to happiness.
– Explain how health, social activity, and
religion are related to happiness.
– Discuss how love, work, genetics, and
personality are related to happiness.
– Summarize the conclusions drawn about the
determinants of happiness.
The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis
• What makes people happy?
• What is not very important:
1. Money – the correlation between income
and happiness is very weak (.13) in U.S.
2. Age – age accounts for less than 1% of
variation in reported happiness.
3. Gender – gender also accounts for less
than 1% of variation in reported
happiness.
The Roots of Happiness, continued
Variables which are not important, continued:
4. Parenthood – good and bad aspects of
parenthood offset each other.
5. Intelligence – there is no association
between IQ and happiness.
6. Physical attractiveness – attractive people
enjoy many advantages in society, but the
relationship with happiness is very weak.
The Roots of Happiness, continued
• What is somewhat important?
1. Health – health and happiness have a
positive correlation of .32.
2. Social activity – people who are satisfied
with their friendships and are socially active
report above-average levels of happiness.
3. Religion – people with sincere religious
convictions are more likely to be happy.
The Roots of Happiness, continued
• What is very important?
1. Love and marriage – across cultures, for
men and women, married people are happier
than people who are single or divorced.
2. Work – job satisfaction is strongly related to
happiness.
3. Genetics and personality – extraversion (or
positive emotionality) is an inherited trait
which is a strong predictor of happiness.
The Roots of Happiness, continued
• Conclusions regarding roots of happiness:
1. Subjective feelings of happiness are more
important than objective measures.
2. Happiness is relative.
– We evaluate our happiness relative to
what others around us have, and
– We evaluate our happiness relative to our
own expectations.
3. It is hard for people to predict what will make
them happy.
The Roots of Happiness, continued
Conclusions, continued
4. Happiness is affected by hedonic
adaptation. This occurs when “the mental
scale that people use to judge the
pleasantness-unpleasantness of their
experiences shifts so that their neutral point,
or baseline for comparison, is changed”.
– (e.g. when circumstances improve, such
as income, our baseline for happiness
increases as well, so we don’t feel
happier.)
Application: Improving Academic Performance
• Tips for developing sound study habits.
1. Set up a schedule for studying.
2. Find a place to study where you can
concentrate.
3. Reward your studying.
Improving Academic Performance, continued
• Tips for improving your reading:
• SQ3R is “a study system designed to
promote effective reading that includes five
steps”:
1. Survey – glance at headings of material.
2. Question – convert these into questions.
3. Read – try to answer the questions.
4. Recite – recite your answers out loud.
5. Review – go back over key points.
Improving Academic Performance, continued
• Tips for getting more out of lectures:
1. Use active listening.
2. Prepare for lecture by reading ahead.
3. Write down the lecturer’s thoughts in your
own words.
4. Ask questions during lecture.
Improving Academic Performance, continued
• Tips for applying memory principles:
1. Engage in adequate practice.
• Use overlearning – “continued rehearsal
of material after you have first appeared
to master it”.
2. Use distributed practice – breaking up
studying is more effective than cramming.
3. Organize information – outline material from
your text to enhance retention.
Improving Academic Performance, continued
• Tips for applying memory principles, continued
4. Emphasize deep processing – try to make material
personally meaningful.
5. Use verbal mnemonics (memory strategies) such
as acronyms or rhymes.
6. Use visual mnemonics such as the Method of Loci
[see Figure 1.15].
Figure 1.15 The method of loci. In this example from Bower (1970), a person about to go shopping pairs
items to be remembered with familiar places (loci) arranged in a natural sequence: (1) hot dogs/driveway;
(2) cat food/garage; (3) tomatoes/front door; (4) bananas/coat closet; (5) whiskey/kitchen sink. As the last
panel shows, the shopper recalls the items by mentally touring the loci associated with them.