Physics and Modeling of Microelectronic Devices

MEL ZG631
Lecture-07
Dr. Nilesh Goel
BITS Pilani Department of Electrical and Electronics
BITS Pilani Dubai Campus
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
[email protected]

1
Disclaimer

The material in this presentation is gathered from a large number of

textbooks, online and other resources. The copyright is held by the
respective authors. No originality of any nature is claimed here as this
material is available in public domain. The material is arranged in its
present form purely for instructional/educational purposes and should
not be used for any other purpose.
Nilesh Goel
MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 2
Outline Lecture-06 Carrier Transport Phenomenon
Carrier Drift
• Drift Current density
• Mobility
• Conductivity
• Velocity Saturation
Carrier Diffusion
• Diffusion Current Density
• Total Current Density
Graded Impurity Distribution
• Induced Electric Field
• The Einstein Relation
Hall Effect

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 3
The Hall Effect
It is a consequence of the forces that are exerted
on moving charges by electric & magnetic fields.
Applications in Semiconductor:
• Sign of charge carrier → distinguish between p-
type or n-type semiconductor
• Charge carrier density
• Charge carrier mobility
• Energy gap

Force on a particle having a charge q and moving

in a magnetic field is Induced electric field in the y direction is called the
Hall field. The Hall field produces a voltage across the
The magnetic field force will be exactly balanced semiconductor which is called the Hall voltage.
by the induced electric field force: where EH is assumed positive in the +y direction and VH
is positive with the polarity shown above.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 4
The Hall Effect
In a p-type semiconductor, in which holes are the For an n-type semiconductor, the Hall voltage is given
majority carrier, the Hall voltage will be positive. by
In an n-type semiconductor, in which electrons are the
majority carrier, the Hall voltage will have the opposite
polarity.
Using last two equations, we can write
For a p-type semiconductor, we can write
For a p-type semiconductor, the drift velocity of holes
can be written as

Current density is:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 5
Hall Effect Equations Summary

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 6
Outline Lecture 7 (Non-Equilibrium)
• Non-equilibrium Excess Carriers in Semiconductor
• Carrier Generation and Recombination
• Characteristics of Excess Carriers
• Ambipolar Transport
• Quasi-Fermi Energy Level
• Excess Carrier lifetime
• Surface Effects

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 7
Non-Equilibrium Excess Carriers
■ Describe the process of generation and recombination of excess carriers in a semiconductor.

■ Define the recombination rate and generation rate of excess carriers, and define the excess carrier
lifetime.

■ Discuss why excess electrons and excess holes do not move independently of each other. The movement
of excess carriers is called ambipolar transport, and the ambipolar transport equation is derived.

■ Apply the ambipolar transport equation to various situations to determine the time behavior and spatial
behavior of excess carriers.

■ Define the quasi-Fermi energy level.

■ Analyze the effect of defects in a semiconductor on the excess carrier lifetime.

■ Analyze the effect of defects at a semiconductor surface on the excess carrier concentration.
MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 8
Carrier Generation & Recombination
Generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created, and Recombination is the
process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.
Deviation form Thermal equilibrium will change the e- and h+ concentration in CB and VB
respectively.
• Due to Sudden change in temperature.
• Shining light on semiconductor.
• External excitation in the form of Electric field and voltage.

At steady state, rate of e- generation is same as h+ generation and rate of e- recombination is

same as h+ recombination.
Gn0 = Gp0, Rn0 = Rp0

In thermal Equilibrium: Gn0 = Gp0 = Rn0 = Rp0

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 9
Excess Carrier Generation and Recombination
Please keep a note of some symbols used here after mention in the table below:-

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 10
Low level and High Level Injection Definition
In n-type extrinsic semiconductor, n0 >> p0 (nn0 >> pn0 ) and similarly in p-type extrinsic
semiconductor, p0>>n0 (pp0>>np0).

Low level injection means that the excess carrier concentration (𝛿n(t) and 𝛿p(t)) is much less
than the thermal equilibrium majority carrier concentration (nn0 and pp0).

High level injection occurs when the excess carrier concentration (𝛿n(t) and 𝛿p(t)) becomes
comparable or higher than thermal equilibrium majority carrier concentrations (nn0 and pp0).

Example:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 11
Carrier Generation & Recombination
Under non-equilibrium
Lets consider simple case of “direct band-to-band”
recombination and generation as shown in right figure.
Excess e- and h+ generate in pair so,
Excess e- and h+ recombine in pair so,
Rate of recombination is proportional to concentration of e-
and h+, net rate of change in e- concentration is:

Where: and
First term is the thermal equilibrium generation rate.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 12
Carrier Generation & Recombination
Equation above defines decay in excess
minority carriers (e- in p-type material).
is referred as “minority carrier lifetime”

Excess majority carrier holes recombine at

If we consider p-type material and low level same rate:
injection then:

In n-type material recombination rate will be:

Where and is constant for

low level injection.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 13
Practice Question

concentration of 𝛿n(0) = 1015 cm-3. The forcing function generating the excess carriers turns off
Question: Assume that excess carriers have been generated uniformly in a semiconductor to a

at time t=0. Assuming the excess carrier lifetime is 𝜏n0 =10-6s, determine 𝛿n(t) for t>0.
Determine the behavior of excess carriers a function of time.
Solution: From

NOTE: These results simply demonstrate the exponential decay of excess carriers with time
after an excitation source is removed.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 14
Characteristics of Excess Carriers

The generation and recombination rates of excess carriers are important parameters, but how
the excess carriers behave with time and in space in the presence of electric fields and density
gradients is of equal importance.

The excess electrons and holes do not move independently of each other, but they diffuse and
drift with the same effective diffusion coefficient and with the same effective mobility. This
phenomenon is called ambipolar transport.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 15
Continuity Equation
.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 16
Ambipolar Transport
Cases: (Very Very Important)

Where:

For p-type Semiconductor under low level

injection:-

For n-type Semiconductor under low level

injection:-

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 17
Practice Question
Question: Consider an infinitely large, homogeneous n-type semiconductor with zero applied electric field.
Assume that at time t = 0, a uniform concentration of excess carriers exists in the crystal, but assume that g’ = 0
for t > 0. If we assume that the concentration of excess carriers is much smaller than the thermal-equilibrium
electron concentration, then the low injection condition applies. Calculate the excess carrier concentration as a
function of time for t > 0. (Behavior to return to equilibrium)
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 18
Practice Question
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 19
Practice Question
Question: Again consider an infinitely large, homogeneous n-type semiconductor with a zero applied electric
field. Assume that, for t < 0, the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium and that, for t >=0, a uniform generation
rate exists in the crystal. Calculate the excess carrier concentration as a function of time assuming the condition of
low injection. (Behavior to reach steady state)
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 20
Practice Question (Homework, refer book)
Question: Consider a p-type semiconductor that is homogeneous and infinite in extent. Assume a zero applied
electric field. For a one-dimensional crystal, assume that excess carriers are being generated at x=0 only, as
indicated in Figure below. The excess carriers being generated at x=0 will begin diffusing in both the +x and -x
directions. Calculate the steady-state excess carrier concentration as a function of x. (Steady state spatial
dependence of excess carrier).
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 21
Practice Question (Homework, refer book)
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 22
Practice Question (Homework, refer book)
Question: Assume that a finite number of electron–hole pairs is generated instantaneously at time t = 0 and at x =
0, but assume g’ = 0 for t>0. Assume we have an n-type semiconductor with a constant applied electric field equal
to E0, which is applied in the +x direction. Calculate the excess carrier concentration as a function of x and t. (time
dependence and space dependence of excess carrier)
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 23
Practice Question (Homework, refer book)
Solution:

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 24
Practice Question (Homework, refer book)

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 25
Quasi-Fermi Level

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 26
Quasi-Fermi Level
Thermal equilibrium e- and h+ concentrations are function of Fermi energy level.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 27
Practice Question

1010cm-3, and p0=105cm-3. In non-equilibrium, assume that the excess carrier concentrations are 𝛿n = 𝛿p
Question: Consider an n-type semiconductor at T=300 K with carrier concentrations of n0=1015cm-3, ni=

=1013 cm-3. Find Quasi Fermi Levels.

Solution:

NOTE: We may note that the quasi-Fermi level for electrons is above EFi while the quasi-Fermi level
for holes is below EFi.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 28
Shockley-Read-Hall Theory (Excess Carrier Lifetime)
Assume a Trap site is present between bandgap of semiconductor, how it will impact RG process. Lets assume
Trap is of Acceptor type nature then four different possible processes are:-

The final rate of recombination is:-

Where:-
Cn and Cp are the e- and h+ capture cross
section.
Nt is trap concentration.
n and p is e- and h+ conc in CB and VB
respectively.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 29
Practice Question
Question: Determine the excess carrier lifetime in an intrinsic semiconductor. If we substitute
and in then

Consider an intrinsic semiconductor containing excess carriers. Then n=ni + 𝛿n and p=ni + 𝛿n. Also assume that
n’=p’= ni
Solution:

NOTE: The excess carrier lifetime increases as we change from an extrinsic to an intrinsic
semiconductor.
MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 30
Surface Effects
When a semiconductor is abruptly terminated, the perfect periodic nature of the idealized
single-crystal lattice ends abruptly at the surface.

Excess minority carrier lifetime is inversely proportional to the density of trap states.

MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956 31
 BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

Thank You
See you next class
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MEL ZG631 Physics & Modelling of Microelectronic Devices, Dr. Nilesh Goel, EEE Dept. BITS Pilani Dubai Campus