Overview of Minerals

Dr Uzma Nasib
 Learning Objectives

By the end of lecture students will be able to:

•List and classify the dietary minerals with
their biochemical importance
•Describe their sources and daily
recommended allowances
•Explain their biochemical functions
•Discuss the clinical significance of mineral
deficiency and toxicity
Minerals are inorganic compounds that are
required for the body as one of the
nutrients
Macro minerals Micro minerals

Required in excess
of 100mg/day Required in amounts
less than 100mg/day

Ca++, P, S, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo, I, Fl,

Cl, Na, K. Cr, CO, Mn
Biochemical role of Minerals
 Functions of Minerals
• Some participate with enzymes in metabolic
processes (cofactors, e.g. Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, K)
• Some have structural functions (Ca, P in bone; S in
keratin)
• Acid-base and water balance (Na, K, Cl)
• Nerve & muscle function (Ca, Na, K)
• Unique functions: hemoglobin (Fe), Vitamin B12 (Co),
thyroxine (I).
 Calcium (Ca)
• Most abundant mineral in
animal tissues
– 99% Ca in skeleton
– 1% Present in:
• Blood & other tissues
• Lots of functions
– Bone structure
– Nerve function
– Blood clotting
– Muscle contraction
– Cellular metabolism
Dietary requirements
• Dietary requirements:
– Adult : 800 mg/day;
– Women during pregnancy, lactation and post-
menopause: 1.5 g/day;
– Children (1-18 yrs): 0.8-1.2 g/ day;
– Infants: (< 1 year): 300-500 mg /day
• Food Sources:
– Best sources: milk and milk product;
– Good sources: beans, leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage, egg
yolk.
 Absorption of calcium:

– in small intestine (duodenum), first

half jejunum against electrical and
concentration gradient, by an
energy dependent active process,
which influenced by several
factors.
Simple diffusion
Mechanism
An active transport involving Ca pump
Factor promoting Ca absorption Factor inhibiting Ca absorption
1. Vit.D: induce the synthesis of 1. Phytates and oxalates form
insoluble salts and interfere
Ca binding protein in the with Ca absorption.
intestinal epithelial cells and
2. The high content of dietary
promotes Ca absorption. phosphate results in the
2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) formation of insoluble Ca
enhances Ca absorption through phosphate and prevent Ca
uptake.
the increased synthesis of
 Dietary ratio of Ca : P ---1:1
calcitriol.
to 2:1--- is ideal for Ca
3. Acidity (low pH) is more absorption.
favorable for Ca absorption. 3. The alkaline condition (high pH)
4. Lactose promotes calcium is unfavorable for Ca
absorption.
uptake by intestinal cell.
5. High content of dietary fiber
5. Lysine and arginine facilitate Ca interferes with Ca absorption.
absorption. 6. Low estrogen levels
(postmenopausal women)
• Plasma calcium:
normal range: 9-11 mg% (2.25-2.75 mmol/L)
Three forms of plasma calcium:
① Ionized Ca (diffusible): about 50% is ionized from which
functionally the most active.
② Complex Ca with organic acid (diffusible): about 10% is found
in association with citrate or phosphate.
③ Protein bound Ca (non-diffusible): about 40% is found in
association with albumin and globulin.

Ca
[H+] [H+]
Protein Ca anion Ca
[HCO3 ] -
Ca [HCO3 ]
-
Ca
 Factors Regulating Plasma Ca Level

• Plasma Ca is regulated variable

• Three hormones involved in regulation
– Calcitriol (1,25-(OH)2 VitD3, or 1,25 DHCC)
• from kidney
– Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• from parathyroid gland
– Calcitonin(CT)
• from thyroid gland

• Vitamin D3 and PTH : increase plasma Ca↑

• Calcitonin : decrease plasma Ca↓
Regulation of Calcium Homeostasis
 Action on the kidney and
intestine
• Action on the kidney: increase the Ca reabsorption.
• Action on the intestine: indirect, increase the intestine
absorption of Ca by promoting the synthesis of calcitriol.
 Calcitonin (CT)
• CT, 32aa, a hormone secreted by parafollicular
cells of thyroid gland, is opposite to that of PTH.
• CT has the ability to decrease blood Ca and P
levels and its major target cells also in bone, kidney
and intestine.
1. bone: stimulate osteoclasts become osteoblasts,
osteogenesis.
2. intestine: inhibit absorption of Ca.
3. kidney: enhance of Ca excretion from urine.
 Calcium Deficiencies -Rickets

weakness and deformity of the bones that occurs from

vitamin D deficiency or dietary deficiency of Ca and P in a
growing person
 Calcium Deficiencies -Osteoporosis

progressive loss of bone density, thinning of bone tissue

and increased vulnerability to fractures in the elderly
people of both sexes.
 Phosphorous (P)
• 80% of P occurs in • The recommended dietary
combination with Ca in the allowance (RDA) of
bone and teeth. phosphate is based on the
• About 10% is found in intake of calcium.
– For adult, the ratio of Ca : P
muscles and blood in of 1:1 is recommended
association with proteins, (800mg/day);
carbohydrate and lipids. – For infant, however, the
• The remaining 10% is ratio is around 2:1, which is
ratio found in human milk.
widely distributed in • Sources: milk, cereals, leafy
various chemical vegetable, meat, eggs.
compounds.
 Phosphorus metabolism
Major role in structure and function of all living cells and as a free
ion
Integral part of:
nucleic acids
nucleotides
phospholipides
phosphoproteins
Enzymes that attach phosphates in ester or acid anhydride
linkages
Other enzymes (phosphatases, pyrophosphatases)
Blood phosphate: H2PO4- and HPO42-
Concentration measured as phosphorus: 2.5 - 4.5 mg/100 ml
Skeletal hydroxyapatite - Ca(PO4)2 or Ca(OH)2
 Functions of Phosphorus
• Essential for the development of bones and teeth
• Phospholipids, Phosphoproteins
• Component of:
– DNA & RNA
– ATP, NAD+, NADP+
• Energy metabolism: ATP, GTP
• Maintenance of blood pH: phosphate buffer system
 Serum phosphate

The serum P may

serum: 3-4 mg/dl exist as free ions
(40%)
RBC and WBC complex form (50%)
have very high with cation as Ca2+,
content of
Mg2+, Na+, K+.
phosphate. About 10% is bound
proteins.
 Factors Regulating Ca and P

hormone 1,25 DHCC PTH CT

Ca absorption in intestine ↑↑ ↑ ↓
osteolysis ↑ ↑↑ ↓
osteogenesis ↑ ↓ ↑
Ca excretion from ↑ ↓ ↑
kidney
P excretion from kidney ↓ ↑ ↑
Blood calcium ↑ ↑ ↓
Blood phosphorus ↑ ↓ ↓
 CLINICAL IMPORTANCE
• Rickets and Osteomalacia are important dietary deficiency
disorders of calcium, phosphorus or vit-D.
• Plasma levels of adult 0.6-1.2 mmol/L are lower compared
to childhood 1.3- 2.8 mmol/L.
• There is often a slight fall in PO4 after a meal rich
in carbohydrates.
Plasma Ca and phosphate together are normally measured.
• ↑ Ca + ↓ PO4 Primary hyperparathyroidism
• ↑ Ca + ↑ PO4 Malignancy (1o or 2o) tumour deposits
• in bone, post-dialysis in renal failure.
• ↓ Ca + ↑ PO4 Hypoparathyroidism
• ↓ Ca + ↓ PO4 Vit. D deficiency
 Iron
• The total content of iron in • Dietary requirements:
an adult body is 3-5 g. – Adult man: 10 mg/day
1. About 70%: in the – Menstruating woman:
erythrocytes of blood 18 mg/day
as a constituent of Hb. – Pregnant and lactating
2. At least 5%: in Mb of woman: 40 mg/dl
muscle. – Rich source: organ
3. Heme is the most meats (liver, heart,
predominant iron kidney).
containing substance: – Good source: leafy
e.g. Hb, Mb, vegetables, pulses,
cytochromes. cereals, fish, apple,
4. Non-heme iron: e.g. dried fruits, molasses.
transferrin, ferritin. – Poor sources: milk,
wheat, polished rice.
• Iron is mainly absorbed in the Iron storage
stomach and duodenum. – Iron can be stored
– mostly found in the food
by ferritin (a
in ferric form (Fe3+), bound
to protein or organic acid.
protein) or
– In the acid medium
hemosiderin
provided by gastric HCl,
• Stored in liver,
the Fe3+ is released from bone marrow,
food. intestinal mucosa,
– Reducing substances such and spleen
as ascorbate (Vitamin ) C • A apoferritin
reduces ferric form (Fe3+)
molecule can
to ferrous form (Fe2+).
– Iron in ferrous form (Fe2+)
combine with
is soluble and readily
4,000 atoms of
absorbed. iron.
 Functions
• O2 and CO2 transport via
hemoglobin
– Thus, necessary for ATP production!
• Essential component of many
enzymes
• Immune function
• Brain function
– Iron deficiency/toxicity thought to
slow mental development in kids.
An overview of iron metabolism
Koilonychia
 Disease states
Iron Deficiency Anemia: The Hemosiderosis: due to excessive
most common dietary deficiency iron in the body.
worldwide. – It is commonly observed in
a) A growing child
subjects receiving repeated
b) Women who are blood transfusions over the
menstruating require
years, e.g. patients of hemolytic
double the amount of
anemia, hemophilia.
iron.
c) A developing fetus draws Hemochromatosis: this is rare
iron from the mother, disease in which iron is directly
totaling 200-300 mg at deposited in the tissue (liver, spleen,
term, so extra iron is pancreas and skin).
needed in pregnancy.
– Bronzed-pigmentation of skin,
cirrhosis of liver. pancreatic
fibrosis are the manifestations
of this disorder.
 SODIUM-Na+
• Sodium is the principal
• Plasma concentration -
cation of extra cellular 135 -145 mmol/L
fluid. • Maintaining of total body
• It is found in all types fluid homeostasis and
of foods. water balance.
• (RDA) is 5-10 gms. • Decrease in blood pressure
and decreases in sodium
• It is excreted in the concentration result in the
urine. production of Renin →
• The concentrations are aldosterone production →
decreases the excretion of
maintained by sodium in the urine
Aldosterone.
 Sodium

Normal range – 135 to 145

mEq/L
Primary regulator of ECF
volume (a loss or gain of
sodium is usually
accompanied by a loss or
gain of water)
 Potassium
• Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts • Alkalosis (pH > 7.44) causes
hypokalemia → transient
shifting of K+ into cells,
• K+ is the principal
• Acidosis (pH < 7.36)
cation of the
causes hyperkalemia →
intracellular fluid.
transient shifting of K+
• Plasma concentration from cells at the expense
– 3.5 – 5.2 mmol/L. of H+
• Key role of K+ in
skeletal and smooth
muscle contraction
• Hyperkalemia produces characteristic
electrocardio-graphic changes ( effect of K+ excess
on the heart).
 Potassium
• Deficiency secondary to
illness, injury or diuretic
therapy
• Muscular weakness
• Paralysis
• Mental confusion
• Cardiac arrest
• Small bowel ulcers
 Magnesium
• Sources:
– Vegetables
– Cereals
– Beans
– Potatoes
– Cheese
– animal tissues
 Magnesium

• It is a cofactor for peptidases, ribonucleases,

glycolytic enzymes
• High levels depress nerve conduction, low levels
may cause Tetany.
• Major part is found in bones. In teeth, it is present
as dentin and enamel.
 Magnesium metabolism
• Hypomagnesemia Hypermagnesemia cause:
cause:
• changes in skeletal • muscle weakness
and cardiac muscle
• hypotension
• changes in
neuromuscular
• ECG changes
function, • sedation and
• hyperirritability, confusion
psychotic behaviour
• tetany • Hypermagnesemia is
usual due to renal
insuficiency.
 Chloride
• Source: Table salt
• Functions:
• Fluid and electrolyte balance
• Gastric fluid
 COPPER++
• Liver, brain, kidney and • FUNCTIONS
heart are rich in • Cofactor of enzymes
copper. like:
• Free copper is 4%, 96 % • Cytochrome Oxidase
is bound to • Dopamine
Ceruloplasmin in body. Decarboxylase
• Sources: cereals, • Tyrosinase
légumes, raisins, nuts • Cyt.C Oxidase
etc.
• Superoxide Dismutase
• Monoamine Oxidases
 Copper deficiency
• Causes anemia. • Menke’s disease or Kinky
• (Microcytic, hair syndrome:
normochromic • It is fatal sex linked
anemia) Normochromic recessive disorder in which
means that your red blood cells
have a normal amount of
there is cerebral and
hemoglobin, and the hue of
red is not too pale or deep in
cerebellar degeneration,
color . • connective tissue
abnormalities and kinky
• Failure of melanin hair.
formation because • Both serum [Copper] and
tyrosine oxidase [Ceruloplasmin] is low.
becomes inactive.
Menke’s disease or Kinky hair syndrome
 Wilson’s disease
• It is an Autosomal,
recessive disorder.
• There is a decrease in the
biliary excretion of copper.
• Blood and tissue copper is
high in these patients.
• It leads to retention of
copper, followed by
hepato-lenticular
degeneration.

• .
 Fluoride
• It is solely derived from water, tea, and fish
• Daily intake should not be more than 3mg.
• It is absorbed by diffusion from intestine
• Mostly it is found in the bones and teeth.
• Functions
• important for tooth development
• prevention of Dental Caries.
• promotes bone development,
• increases retention of calcium and phosphate,
prevent osteoporosis
Fluorosis
• is due to toxicity of fluoride
• It damages mitochondria
• Protein synthesis decreases in muscle, heart, kidney,
lungs, pancreas and spleen.
• Collagen synthesis is adversely affected.
 Iodine
• Sources:
• Vegetables, fruits obtained from sea shore, sea
food are rich in iodine.
• People who live on hills do not get iodine from
diet. They are prone to suffer from deficiency.
• It is absorbed from small intestines and
transported as protein complex in plasma.
 Iodine Deficiency Disorders

• Mental Retardation
• Hypothyroidism
• Goiter
• Cretinism in children
• Varying degrees of other
growth and developmental
abnormalities
Absorpti Transpo Storag Excretio
on rt e n

Bindin
g 80% in
Upper
small loosely 2/3rd in
intestin to thyroid urine
e plasma gland
as
protein thyrogl
s obulin
Required for the
synthesis of
thyroid
hormones
T4 and T3
 Toxicity Disease/Symptoms

• Goiter
• Thyroid gland enlarges,
forming a goiter. (Goiters can
form when the thyroid gland is
underactive or overactive.)
• Thyrotoxicosis
• is a condition in which you
have too much thyroid
hormone in your body
 ZINC
• Zinc is important for the activity of a number of
enzymes like
– Carbonic anhydrase
– DNA, RNA polymerases
• Release of vitamin A from liver requires Zinc.
• participates in the regeneration of rhodopsin (visual
cycle).
• Insulin is secreted, stored as a complex of Zinc
• Helps in wound healing.
 ZINC Deficiency

• Results in dwarfism and hypogonadism

• Delayed sexual development
• It decreases spermatogenesis in males
• irregular menstrual cycles in females.
• Hepatosplenomegaly
 Manganese
• High concentration of Mn2+ is present in mitochondria
• Functions as a necessary factor for activation of
glycosyltransferases (enzymes responsible for the
synthesis of oligosaccharides, glycoproteins,
proteoglycans.
• Required for superoxide dismutase activity, for
activity of metalloenzymes:
• hydrolases
• kinases
• decarboxylases
• transferases.
• Deficiency of Mn extensively reduce glycoprotein and
proteoglycan formation.
 COBALT
• Sources: Food of animal origin
• Required only as a constituent of vitamin B12
• Cobalt deficiency leads to vitamin B12 deficiency
 Selenium
• Seafoods, and organ meats are the richest food sources
of selenium
•An integral component of glutathione peroxidase
(intracellular antioxidant),
• A scavenger of peroxides,
• An essential element for immune function
(selenoproteins).

• Selenoproteins catalyze oxido-reduction reactions,

protective function from oxidative stress (macrophage- or
neutrophil-generated free-radical species, UV in sunlight.
 Reference
•Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry
•Lippincott’s Illustrated reviews of Biochemistry