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EVOLUTION
• Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms
on earth.
• To understand this we must understand origin of life,
i.e.,
• evolution of earth,
• of stars and
• the universe itself.
•

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 ORIGIN OF LIFE
• Universe is 20 billion yrs. old
• Universe expanded-temp came down.
• Gases condensed and formed galaxies.
• Earth is part of solar system of milky way galaxy,
formed about 4.5 billion yrs. ago.
• Primitive atm.Water vapour, methane, Co2 and NH3.
• UV rays broke up water into H2 and O2.
• O2 formed water and Co2 with NH3 and CH4.
• Life appeared 500 million yrs. After the formation of
earth.

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4 Big bang theory
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7 Panspermia

 According to it life came from out side

 Early Greek scientists thought that units of life called spores
were transferred to different planets including earth
8 Theory of spontaneous
generations

Life came out of the decaying & rotting matter like

straw,mud
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Lowis pasteur
experiment

Life comes only from pre existing life,but it

did not answer how the first life form came
on earth.
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  Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed
11 that the first form of life coud have come from pre-
existing non-living organic molecules.
 Formation of life was preceded by chemical
evolution.
 First non-cellularforms o life could have originated
3 billion yrs. Back.
 2000 yrs. Back the first cellular forms could have
originated.
 1. High temperature
 2. volcanic storms
 3. reducing atmosphere containing
CH4, NH3.
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 Evolution of life forms
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 Conventional religious literature tells the
theory of special creation
 There are three connotations
 1. All living organisms that we see today
were created as such
 2. The diversity was the same since
creation& will be the same in future also
 3. The earth is about 4000 years old
14 Evidences for organic
 evolution
1. Evidences from fossils
 2. Evidences from comparative
anatomy
 & morphology
 3.Evidences from biochemistry
 4.Evidences from plant & animal
 breeding
 5.Evidences from natural selection
 Fossil evidences
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 Fossils are remaines of hard parts of life
forms found in rock
 Rocks form sediments & a cross section
of earth crust indicates the arrangements
of sediments one over the other during
the life history of the earth
 Different aged rock sediments contain
fossils of different life forms who died
during the formation of the particular
sediment
 They represent the extinct forms
 A study of fossils in different layers
indicates the geological period in which
they existed.
16 Different strata shows
different fossils
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 Fossil evidence
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 Homologous organs
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In these animals the same structure developed along the

different directions due to the adaptations to different
needs . This is divergent evolution
Homology indicates common ancestry
 Homologous organs
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Homologous organs have same structural plan the fore

limb has humerus, radius, ulna, carpals ,metacarpals,
phalanges
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HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS
 Analogous organs
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They are not anatomically similar structures though they

perform similar function. hence, analogous organs are a
result of a convergent evolution .
Different structures evolving for the same function and
hence having similarity- this is said to be convergent
evolution
24 EXAMPLES FOR ANALOGOUS
ORGANS
 POTATO (Stem Modification) & SWEET POTATO(
I.
Root Modiication)
 2. OCTOPUS EYE &HUMAN EYE
 3. FLIPPERS OF WHALE & PENGUIN
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ANALOGOUS ORGANS
Analogous organs

HUMAN EYE

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 Dolphin flipper & penguin flipper
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28 Biochemical evidences

 Similarities in proteins & genes

performing a given function among
diverse organisms give clues to common
ancestory
 TYPES OF MOTHS

There are two

types of moths
1 light winged
moth
2 Dark winged
moth
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 Tree trunks before industrialisation
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Before industrialization set in, it was observed that there are more white –
winged moths on trees than dark winged or melanised moths
Before industrialization set in the tree trunks were covered by thick growth
of the lichens. In that background the white winged moth survived , but
the dark coloured moths were picked out by predators
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 TREE TRUNKS AFTER
32 INDUSTRIALISATION

After industrialization there were more dark winged moths on the tree trunks
During this period the tree trunks became dark due to the industrial smoke &
soots
Under this condition the white winged moth did not survive due to the
predators, because their body colour was not matched with the surrounding
colour
The dark winged moths were survived because their body colour was
matched with the surrounding colour
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BEFORE
INDUSTRIALISATION

AFTER
INDUSTRIALISATION
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They will not grow where there is industrial pollution

That’ s why in the rural areas we can see the growth
of the lichens
 Evidence from animal & plant
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breeding
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Man has domesticated many wild animals & crops

this intensive breeding programme has created
breeds that differ from other breeds. they belong to
the same group
It is argued that within hundred of years man could
create new breeds, could not the nature have done
the same over millions of years
 Adoptive radiation
 The process of evolution of different
species in a given geographical area
starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas of geography is called
adaptive radiation.

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Examples for adoptive radiation

 1. Darwin finches
 2 Australian marsupials

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 Adoptive radiation in
41 marsupials of Australia

Common ancestor
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 When more than one

adoptive radiation appeared
to have occurred in an
isolated geographical area,
it is said to be convergent
evolution
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Convergent
evolution of
Australian
Marsupials and
Placental
Mammals
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
44 Natural selection
A colony of bacterium growing (A
colony) has variation in terms of
ability to utilize a feed component.
Colony A
When the medium
composition is changed,
B population will get the
selective advantage & its
population will be
increased.

Colony B In due course of time new

sps will be appeared.
The rate of appearance of
new forms is linked to the Thus nature selects for
life span or life cycle fitnes.
 Natural selection
45  Microbes that divide fast have the
ability to multiply & become millions
of individuals within hours .for the
same thing to happen in a fish or a
fowl takes millions of years
 Branching descent and natural
selection are the two key concepts of
Darwinian Theory of Evolution.
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47 Natural selection

There are three basic ways that

natural selection can affect a
trait (also called the three modes
of selection): directional,
stabilizing and disruptive
48 Directional selection
Directional selection occurs when one extreme
form of the character is favored. This form of
selection is very common in changing
environments. Industrial melanism is an example
of a discretely varying character under directional
selection
More individuals acquire value other than the
mean charecter
49 Stabilizing selection
Stabilizing (or balancing) selection
occurs when an intermediate form
of the character is favored,
In this more individuals acquire
mean charecter
50 Distruptive selection

It occurs when both extremes are

favored over intermediates.
More individuals acquire peripheral
character value at both ends of the
distribution curve
 Natural selection
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 MECHNISM OF EVOLUTION
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Evening primrose
 Mutations
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According to Devries Mutations are large differences

arising suddenly in a population
He believed that mutation causes evolution & not the
minor variations what Darwin talked about
EVOLUTION

• AS PER DARWIN • AS PER DEVRIES

• Mutations cause • Minor variations cause
evolution not minor evolution.
variations Darwin talked
about.
• Darwin variations are
• Mutations are random
small and directional.
and directionless.
• Evolution slow and
• Mutation caused
gradual.
speciation, hence called
saltation (single step
large mutation)

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 HARDY-WEINBERG
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 LAW
It states that allele frequencies in a
population are stable & is constant from
generation to generation
 The gene pool ( total genes & their
alleles in a population ) remains a
constant. This is called genetic
equilibrium
 Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is
1.
 Change of frequency of alleles in a
population would then be interpreted as
resulting in evolution.
 Hardy- weinberg law
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HW law states -->
original percentage of a genotypes alleles
remains CONSTANT

HW Equilibrium... is defined algebraically, by the

binomial expansion
any gene with 2 allelic forms... A and a
let frequency of one allele (A)
= p
& frequency of other allele (a)
= q
the frequency of AA in a population is =p2

the frequency of aa in a population is = q2

the frequency of Aa in population is =2pq

Hence (p + q)2 = p2 + 2 pq + q2 = 1
 In population of canes... Orange is dominant (AA) to
Green (aa)
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of 1000 canettes, we observe that...
40 are Green (aa) & thus 960 are Orange (AA&Aa)
q2 = freq homozygous recessive (green aa) = 0.04
40/1000 = [0.04] x 1000 = 40
q = freq of recessive allele sq.root of 0.04 =
0.20
p = freq dominant allele [A] = 1 - q = 1 - 0.2 =
0.80
2pq = freq of heterozygote [Aa]
= 2 (0.2) (0.8) = [0.32 x 1000] =
320
p2 = freq of homozygous dominant
= (0.8)2 = [0.64 x 1000] =
640

p2+2pq + q2= 0.04+0.32+0.64=

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59 Factors which effect hardy –
weinberg principle
 1.Gene migration or gene
flow
 2. Genetic drift
 3. Mutation
 4. Genetic recombination
 5. Natural selection
60 Gene migration or gene flow

Migration (or gene flow): Some beetles with

brown genes immigrated from another
population, or some beetles carrying green
genes emigrated
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Mutation
62 Genetic drift

Genetic drift: When the beetles reproduced, just by

random luck more brown genes than green genes ended
up in the offspring. In the diagram at right, brown genes
occur slightly more frequently in the offspring (29%) than
in the parent generation (25%).
63 Natural selection

Natural selection: Beetles with brown genes escaped predation and

survived to reproduce more frequently than beetles with green
genes, so that more brown genes got into the next generation.
64 Founder effect
 Some times the
change in the allele
frequency is so
different in the new
sample of population
that they become a
different species.
 The original drifted
population becomes
the founders for the
formation of new
species & the effect
is called Founders
effect
 Brief account of evolution
 About 2000 million years ago( mya) the first cellular forms of life
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appeared on earth
 Some of these cells had the ability to release O2. The reaction
could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis
where water is split with the help of solar energy
 Slowly single celled organisms became multicellular
 By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed & active
 Jawless fish evolved around 350 mya
 Sea weeds & & few plants existed probably around 320 mya
 The first organisms that invaded land were plants they were wide
spread on land when animals invaded land
 Fish with stout & strong fins could move on land & go back to
water . This was about 350 mya
 in 1938 a fish caught in South Africa was a Coelacanth which was
thought to be extinct
 these animals called lobefins evolved into the first Amphibians
that lived in both land & water
 Lobefins are the ancestors of the modern day frogs &
salamanders
 The amphibians evolved into reptiles they lay thick shelled eggs
which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians
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• In the next 200 million years , reptiles of different sizes &
shapes dominated the earth
• Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve
into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya ( Echthyosauras )
• The land reptiles were Dinosaurs
• About 65 mya dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the
earth
• Most of the dinosaurs are evolved into birds
• the first mammals are like shrews their fossils are small
• Mammals are viviparous & protected their young inside
the mother womb
• When reptiles came down mammals took over the earth

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Tyrannosaurus Rex is the biggest Dinosaur

It was about 20 feet
It had huge fearsome dagger like teeth
74 Reasons for the disappearance
of the dinosaurs
 We do not know the true reason
 1. Some say climatic changes killed them
 2. Some say most of them evolved into reptiles
 Evolution of man
Dryopithecus
 Dryopithecus &
ramapithecus were
existing about 15 mya
 They were hairy &
walked like gorillas
 Ramapithecus was
Ramapithecus
more man like
 Dryopithecus was more
ape like

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76 Ramapithecus
77 Australopithecines

 Few fossils of man like bones discovered in

Ethiopia &Tanzania
 These revealed homonid features leading to the
belief that about 3-4 mya man like primates
walked on earth They were probably not taller
than 4 feet but walked upright
78 Australopithecines
 About 2 mya
australopithecines
probably lived in
east Africa grassland
 They hunted with
stone weapons
 They were fruit
eaters
 This creature was
first human being
like homonid & was
called Homo habilis
 The brain capacities
are between 650-
800cc
 Homo erectus
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About 1.5 mya

Homo erectus
were existed
They had a
large brain
around 900 cc
They probably
ate meat
80 Neanderthal man

Neanderthal man was lived in near east& central asia

between 1,00,000-40,000 years back
They used hides to protect their bodies
Their brain size was 1400cc
81 Homo sapiens

 Homo sapiens arose in

India during ice age
between 75,000-10,000
years ago
 Agriculture came around
10,000 years back
82 Human evolution
83 Human evolution
84 Brain sizes
85 Evolution of plants
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