Lesson 6: ROOF STRUCTURES &

COVERINGS

B. Gaule
DEFINITION OF ROOFS

• SLOPED or FLAT – roofs cannot be truly flat.

• flats roofs are laid with a slight slope or gradient to dissipate unwanted
loading easily.

• roofs are often designed to have sufficient slope to drain/run off snow and
rain.

• the angle of pitch is governed by the type of finish/covering to be applied.

The Definition of a Roof

• A final level (layer) of a building which protects the

dwelling and its occupants from all vagaries of weather.

• A protective covering that covers or forms part of a

roof.

• Final covering that prevents ingress of weather into the

interior of a building.
The Classification of Roofs

• A Flat Roof: This is a roof whose pitch (slope/slant) lies

between 0 & 10 degrees.

• A Pitched Roof: a roof whose pitch is over 10 degrees.

• Any roof over 70 degrees is classified as a Wall.

Basic Functional Requirements
Roofs should: Primarily exclude weather. This implies that any roof
should:
 Keep out the rain, wind, snow and dust.
 Prevent the excessive heat loss in winter.
 Keep the interior of a building cool in summer.
 Accommodate, via design, all stresses imposed on it.
 Provide adequate airtightness.
 Provide resistance to the weather.
 Allow for movement due to changes in temperature and moisture

content.
 Provide the necessary lateral restraint and stability to adjacent

walls.
Additional Functional Requirements

In addition to strength and stability, Roofs should also:

 Provide adequate security.
 Provide adequate thermal and sound insulation,
 Provide resistance to the weather,
 Admit or control solar radiation and daylight,
 Provide adequate fire safety,
 Be durable, maintenance free and easy to clean,
 Comply with the relevant Approved Documents of the Building Regulations,
 Comply with relevant Health & Safety and CDM Regulations.
Dimensional stability: over time, a roof
must be robust, strong & resilient.

Over a period of time when the ridge and purlins are

misaligned due to loss of strength, many other roof
members will also weaken. As the roof is the most
exposed part of a building, the continued exposure to
gustily winds with reduced restraint to any form of lateral
loading may lead to loss of tiles as evidenced by the
irregular roof line here.
Summary of Functional Requirements

Primary (Weather Shield) Secondary (Robustness)

 Weather resistance Durability
 Rain Drainage
 Snow Sound
 Wind Maintenance
 Sun
User functionality
 Dirt/Dust
Daylight
 Thermal resistance Ventilation
 Heat loss Aesthetics
 Heat gain Natural light
 Security Ventilation
 Fire resistance Reduce condensation
Finally; a function that is often overlooked is that of
Aesthetics: the visual appearance or beauty of a home
is defined by its roof.
Performance Requirements of Pitched
Roofs
Although the Primary function of any pitched roof is to provide an adequate
barrier to the penetration of the elements, in doing so its performance is
improved if:

 It helps to facilitate an ambient internal environment by providing adequate

resistance to heat loss.

 Its frame is robust enough to give a satisfactory performance i.e. it should

safely resist all the imposed loadings in the form of snow, wind & rain.

 It can accommodate thermal and moisture movements

Roof Shapes, Types & Terminology
Traditional Classification of Roofs

Close Couple
Roof

Lean-To Roof
Type 1a: Lean-To Roof
Type 1b: Monopitch Roof: has an
independent single pitch or slope
Double Lean-To Roof

Double Lean-To
Roof

Gutter bearer
Traditional Classification of Roofs: Couple roof
• Couple roof
100X 50mm rafters
@ 400C/C
Lean-To Roof

Each pair or couple of rafters is pitched against each other & supported at
the upper ends at the ridge. Couple roof is not suitable for buildings of
larger spans as ridge support lends a building to spread at the feet.
Response of Couple Roof rafters to structural loading

Common rafters
As loadbearing members tend to
stress the walls on which they bear
causing them to thrust out. This is
prevented by designing in collars, tie
beams, or ceiling joists as restraint
Roof tends to
spread and overturn ties.
the walls
 Closed Couple Roof

100 X 50mm 32 mm thick

collar or ceiling ridge board
joists at ceiling
level, not only
ties rafter at
foot restrains Half lap-collars or ties
walls from dovetailed at junction with
spreading out 4.8m maximum rafters and wall plate. The
ties or collars prevent
rafters from spreading
outwards.
 A typical Closed Couple roof

You can just about

see the foot of the
rafters and the ties
Couple roof with purlins &
common rafters on gable end

Rafters

Purlins

Wall plate/
beams
Type 2: Gable End Roof
General Roof Terminology

 Span: This is taken to be the clear span - horizontal distance - between

the internal faces of the walls supporting the roof.

 Rise: The vertical height measured from the lowest to the highest point
of a roof truss.
Pitch = Rise
Span
 Pitch: The slope or inclination to the horizontal expressed either as

The most efficient roof pitch lies between 50 to 60 degrees, but this is
dictated by the type of roof covering to be used.
General Roof Terminology
Traditional Trusses: King Post Truss
Ridge: The spine of a roof; a pitching plate to
which the rafters are nailed through the
Ridge board
The Depth of a Ridge board is determined by the pitch
of a roof: the steeper the pitch the deeper the Ridge
Board
Ridge Board
General Terminology…continued

Common Rafters are often

notched at point of contact
with the wall plate to give
extra leverage and to allow
them to be nailed to wall
plates.
Terminology (continued)

 Wall Plate: provides the bearing and fixing mechanisms

for the various parts of a roof.

 As wall plates are fixed directly along the perimeter wall,

they act as horizontal beams to distribute the roof load
from the roof evenly along the walls.

 They are often embedded in cement mortar or fixed to

walls by means of galvanised strap irons.
Wall plate: provide the bearing and fixing mechanism for the various
parts of a roof as a horizontal loadbearing member
Fixing of a wall plate on the wall

Mortar is used to provide a level

workable surface for laying the wall plate
on
Stability Strapping
• Trussed rafters are fixed to wall plates.
These provide a good fixing for the
rafters and spread the loads over the
wall. The plates should be about 100mm
x 50mm, should be evenly bedded in
mortar and should have half lapped
joints. Wall plate straps are normally 30
x 2.5mm section galvanised steel. The
tops of the straps should be nailed (three
30 x 3.75mm nails or more) to the plate,
or the rafter in the case of a rafter to
wall strap. The straps should be at least
1 metre long and should be screwed at
least three times to blockwork or bent
into a bed joint. Nailing is not good
practice. They should be at 2 metre
centres
Corner halving joint detail where
two wall plates meet along the walls
• A wall plate is a beam in itself;
it distributes the roof’s load
evenly along the internal leaf
of the perimeter

Internal leaf: load

bearing skin
Roof Terminology…continued
 Jack Rafters: - Fulfil the same functions as Common Rafters but span from Ridge
to Valley Rafters or from Hip Rafter to Wall Plate.

 Hip Rafters: - Just like a Ridge, they form a spine of an external angle for the Hip
section of a roof and therefore have to span from a Ridge to the Wall plate.
 Valley Rafters: A hip rafter except it forms an internal angle.

 Purlins- Act as beams reducing the span of rafters and any torsion related stresses in the
main Rafters.

 Struts – Compression members which transfer the load of a purlin to a suitable

load bearing support within the roof frame
Roof Terminology…continued
a. Jack Rafters: - Fulfil the same functions as
Common Rafters but span from Ridge to
Valley Rafters or from Hip Rafter to Wall
Plate. (A jack rafter is any rafter that is shorter than the whole
length of the sloping roof, such as one that begins or ends at a hip or
valley)

b. Hip Rafters: - Just like a Ridge, they form a

spine of an external angle for the Hip section
of a roof and therefore have to span from a
Ridge to the Wall plate.
c. Valley Rafters: A hip rafter except it forms
an internal angle.
d. Purlins- Act as beams reducing the span of
rafters and any torsion related stresses in
the main Rafters.
e. Struts – Compression members which
transfer the load of a purlin to a
suitable load bearing support within
 An assembly of Valley
Rafters

Valley boards
 Jack Rafters
Ridge Rafter

Valley Rafter

Jack Rafter
Spans between Ridge and Valley Rafter
 Galvanised steel gang
Eaves details nail plate connectors

Wall plate
imbedded in Fascia
mortar board

Tie beam Eaves

Eaves
Tie Rafter ventilator
Timber plate connectors between tie beam
and common rafter
Three important areas where restraint
must be provided
 Between trusses,
 On Gable ends
 Along load bearing walls
Lateral Restraint to Trussed Rafters
Reasons why lateral support to trusses is provided
 To minimise lateral movements to make roof coverings
more watertight & efficient.

 To provide a consistent frame to protect other finishes

e.g. ceiling finishes.

 To tie the roof structure to the walls which in turn

transmit all the loading to the foundation.
Lateral Restraint

 Lateral restraint at gable end, between trusses and

along the load bearing wall is essential as this
allows the roof to gain structural integrity,
especially when having to restrain excessive wind
loads.

 Complementary restraints in the form of 30 mm X

50 mm galvanised steel/anchor straps are
effective.
 Stability: strapping
 To prevent the roof from lifting or moving
in high winds the wall plates can be
strapped down to the external load-
bearing walls. The Building Regulations
do not require eaves strapping if the roof:
– has a pitch of 15 degrees or more,
and
– is tiled or slated, and
– is of a type known by local
experience to be resistant to wind
gusts, and
– has main members spanning onto the
supported wall at not more than
1.2metre centres
LATERAL SUPPORT AT ROOF LEVEL
Lateral Restraint along loadbearing wall
 Gable ladder

 The use of a gable ladder enables the

roof structure to overhang the verge.
Although this detail is not cheap it will
keep rain off the gable end and keep
the wall below from saturation. The
ladders can be pre-fabricated or made
up on site. The ladder cantilevers over
the gable-end and is hidden by a
barge board (effectively a fascia
board on the gable end).
Lateral Restraint On Gable ends
Galvanised steel straps providing lateral restraint
between trusses and nailed along ceiling binders
at 2m maximum
Bracing of Trussed Rafters

Longitudinal ceiling binders

nailed across ceiling rafters

Galvanised steel gang-nail

connector plates
Lateral Restraint to Trussed Rafters

Reasons why lateral support to trusses is provided

 To provide strength and stability to the roof so it can
retain its shape and aesthetic appeal.
 To give rigidity to other elements which receive
support from the roof.
 To provide a stable frame to protect the roof coverings.
 To provide dimensional coordination for the entire
building.
Trussed Construction
 Roof Coverings

 Covering refers to the external material laid or fixed on a roof to protect

the building. Typical coverings include:
 Slates,
 Plain tiles,
 Pantiles (burnt slabs of clay, shaped to a flat S in cross section)
 Asphalt,
 Lead,
 Copper,
 Corrugated or plain aluminium profiled sheets,
 Stone,
 Shingles (slabs of cedar or oak),
 Patent glazing and
 Thatch.
Plain tiles
• Tiles, unlike slates, have nibs
which hook over the tiling
battens. This means it is not
necessary to nail every row or
course.
• Machine made plain tiles have
a slight camber along their
length. This prevents the tiles
lying flat, on top of each other,
and limits capilliary action
• All plain tiles are double lap
coverings. They do not
interlock at the sides and
therefore two layers of tiling
are required on the roof.
Fixing slate and tiles

Centre nailing slates

Double lap
Natural slate

Hardwearing, traditional
roof covering which can
last 200 years. 100
years ago, most slate
was quarried.
Stone slate

• Unlike natural slate this is

often made from limestone or
sandstone. It is generally not
as durable as natural slate
Synthetic or artificial slates

These are fibre cement slates -

much lighter and cheaper than
natural slate.
Pantiles

• Single lap tiles (unlike

slates and plain tiles
References

Brett, P. (2005) An illustrated Dictionary of Building: A Reference Guide for Practitioners & Students. Oxford: Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann.

Chudley, R and Greeno, R. (2006) Advanced Construction Technology, 4th Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Everett , A. (1986) Mitchell’s Materials. Mitchell’s Building Series. London: The Mitchell’s Publishing Company Limited.

McKay, W. B. (2005) McKay’s Building Construction, 2005 edition. Dorset: Donhead Publishing Ltd.

Stroud, F, J. (1963) Mitchell’s Advanced Building Construction. The Structure. 70th edition. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.

Stroud, F, J.; Harrington, R.; & Greeno, R. (2007) Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric – Part 2. 7th Edition. Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.

Oakmasters (2008) Oak roof structure incorporating a king post truss. Internet. [Available] <
http://www.oakmasters.co.uk/gallery/photo?photo_id=983> Date Accessed:(6 Nov, 2008) .
th

Osbourn, D. and Greeno, R. (2007). Mitchell’s Introduction to Building, 4th Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.