9 0

T F = T C +32
5
The lowest temperature that has
been extrapolated for the Celsius
Temperature qualitatively scale is -273.150C, which has
describes the hotness & coldness been designated the zero
of objects. An object is 1000C
temperature (absolute zero) of
considered hot when its
temperature is higher than a
the Kelvin scale, the absolute 2120F
temperature scale of the metric
reference temperature; it is system.
considered cold when its
temperature is lower than said T K =T C +273.15
reference temperature.
Kelvin scale temperature is not
Temperature is related to the
expressed in degrees (i.e.
average kinetic energy of the
100K).
molecules comprising the When 2 objects or system have
material of the object. the same temperature, they
considered to be in Thermal
Two common temperature scales Equilibrium. 00C
are the Celsius Scale (i.e. 300C) 320F
& the Fahrenheit Scale (i.e. 50F).
When talking about temperature difference, where
the temperature unit is slightly different for L = change in
the Celsius & Fahrenheit scales. length
L = original length
0

Δ T = T − T =5 0 C−15 0 C T = change in temperature

=−10C 0  = coefficient of linear
f i
expansion

It has been observed that most materials

expand when their temperatures increase.
And when their temperatures decrease,
these materials contract. This phenomenon
is called Thermal Expansion.

When looking at how the length of an

object changes due to changes in
temperature, we have Linear Expansion.
Δ L = α L0 Δ
T
When looking at how the area (surface COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION
or cross-section) of an object changes, Material  [K-1 or (C0)-1
we have Area Expansion. Aluminum 2.4 x 10-5
Brass 2.0 x 10-5
Δ A = σ A0 Δ Copper 1.7 x 10-5
T Glass 0.4-0.9 x 10-5
where Invar (nickel-iron alloy) 0.09 x 10-5
 = coefficient of area expansion Quartz (fused) 0.04 x 10-5
Steel 1.2 x 10-5
And for Volume Expansion,
Δ V =β V 0Δ
where
T
 = coefficient of volume
expansion
Heat is energy associated with changes
The 3 expansion coefficients are related
in temperature.
to each other as follows

σ=2α Heat is energy in transition. Heat (Q)

flows from one object to another.
β = 3 α = 23 Q
A B
σ
Even though no object possesses heat, we where
still say “object A losses heat” while Q = heat gained or lost
“object B gains heat” when heat flows m = mass of the object
from A to B. c = specific heat of the material
comprising the object
Unit of heat: T = change in temperature
1 joule = 1 J
1 calorie = 1 cal = 4.186 Qgain = + (positive)
J1 food calorie = 1 Cal = 1kcal
(negative)
1 British thermal unit = 1 Btu = 252 cal Qloss = -
APPROXIMATE SPECIFIC HEATS
Heat flows from hot to cold. That is, heat Material c (J/kg-K)
flows from the object with higher Aluminum 910
temperature to the object with Berylium 1970
lower temperature. Copper 390
Ethanol 2428
When an object gains heat, it's temperature Ethylene glycol 2386
increases and vice-versa. Ice (near 00C) 2100
Iron 470
dQ=mcdT Lead 130
Q=mc Δ Mercury 138
T Silver 234
Water 4190
 A liquid object will
vaporize when it gains
heat and it is as its
boiling point
temperature. While a
When an object at the right temperature gaseous object will
gains the right amount of heat, the condense when it loses
object changes in phase. heat and it is at its
condensation point
A solid object will melt when it gains Temperature.
heat and it is at its melting point
temperature. While a liquid object will T boiling =T condensation
freeze when it loses heat and it is at its Q=±mL v
freezing point temperature.
where
T melting =T freezing Lv = heat of vaporization of the
Q=±mL f
material
where
Q = heat gained (+) or lost For water,
(-) m = mass of the object Tfreezing Tboiling = 1000C
Lf = heat of fusion of the material =
Lf0=0C334 x 103 J/kg
Lv = 2,256 x 103
J/kg
It must be noted that temperature
change and phase change do not happen
at the same time.

A solid substance can sometimes

transition directly to gaseous phase. This
phenomenon is referred to as sublimation.

What is lost by one part of the system

is gained by another part of the system.
Heat is a form of energy and as such is
subject to the Principle of Conservation Since heat energy may be converted
of Energy. into other forms of energy and vice-
versa,
Q gain +Q loss = 0 ∑ mc Δ T + ∑ ( ± m L ) + ∑ ± E
∑ mc Δ T + ∑ (±mL )=0 + ∑ W d o n e =0
 T −TC
H = dQ =kA H
dt
where L
H = heat transer rate or heat current
Heat is transferred via different k = thermal conductivity of the
mechanisms: Conduction, Convection, material comprising the object
and Radiation. A = cross-section area of the object L =
length of the object
When heat flows within a body or TH = “hot” temperature
between 2 bodies in thermal contact, heat TC = “cold” temperature
transfer via conduction is said to occur.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES
This particularly true with solid objects. Substance k (W/m-K)
Aluminum 205.000
Brass 109.000
Heat transfer is measured in terms of
Copper 385.000
Heat Transfer Rate. Lead 34.700
Steel 50.200
Concrete 0.800
Cork 0.040
Glass 0.800
Ice 1.600
Styrofoam 0.010
Air 0.024
Helium 0.140
Oxygen 0.023
When 2 materials are connected one after
another, the temperature at their connection
point adjusts such that the 2 will have the
same heat transfer rate.

H 1 =H
2 =H T H − T
T −TC
k 1 A1 = k 2 A2
L1 L2

And when 2 materials are arranged

parallel to each other, their heat transfer
rates add together.
While conduction also occurs with fluids,
H = H 1 +H 2 heat transfer via convection is more
dominant. Heat convection is heat
H = k 1 A1 T H 1 − T C1 + k 2 A2 T H 2 − T C2 transfer via the physical motion of fluids.
L1 L2
 0≤e≤1

Since surfaces are both emitting

and absorving energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation,
Heat radiation is the transfer of heat via
the motion of electromagnetic waves like H net = H e m i t − H absorb
4 4
visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet H net = emit e σ Tobj − A absorb e σ surrounding
radiation. A T
Every object emits energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Only at absolute
zero temperature will an object stop
emitting energy.

H = Ae σ T
4

where A = area of the emitting

surface e = emissivity of the
surface
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 108 W/m2•K4
T = temperature (in Kelvin) of
the emitting object
 Example 2
A copper cylinder is initially at 20.00C.
At what temperature will its volume be
0.150% larger that it is at 20.00C?
 = 1.7 x 105 K1
copper
Example 1
The Humber Bridge in England has the Δ T = T f −293.15 K
world's longest single span, 1410 m in αcopper =1.7×10 − 5 K − 1
length. Calculate the change in length
of the steel deck of the span when the
temperature increases from 5.00C to
ΔV
18.00C. 
steel
= 1.2 x 105 K1 V 0 =0.0015 → Δ V =0.0015 0

V
Δ V =β V 0Δ T
Δ T =18 0 C−(−5 0 C )=23C 0 =23K
L 0 =1,410 m → βΔ T
=0.0015
αsteel =1.2×10 − 5 K − 1 T f −293.15 K =0.0015
β
Δ L=α s t e e l L0 Δ T 0.0015
T = +293.15 K
=(1.2×10 K )(1,410 m)(23K)
−5 −1 f
5.1×10 − 5 K − 1
=0.38916 m =322.5617647K
Δ L=0.389 T f =322.562K
m
Example 3 Example 4
A machinist bores a hole of diameter 1.350 Steel train rails are laid in 12-m-long
cm in a steel plate at a temperature of 250C. segments placed end-to-end. The rails are
What is the cross-sectional area of the hole laid on a winter day when their temperature
when the temperature of the plate is is 2.00C. How much space must be left
increased to 1750C? steel = 1.2 x 105 K1 between adjacent rails if they are just
to touch on a summer day when their
Δ T =175 0 C−25 0 C temperature is 33.00C?
=150C 0 =150K 
steel
= 1.2 x 105 K1
d 0 =1.350 cm=0.0135
K− 1 m
α steel =1.2×10
−5
L 0 =12 m
σsteel = 2 αsteel =2.4×10 − 5 K − 1 Δ T =33 0 C−(−2 0
π d02 C)=35C 0
=35K α
A 0= =0.000143138 m2 steel
4 =1.2×10Δ L −5 Δ K− 1
Δ A = σsteel A 0 Δ D = L 2 01 + 02
=2Δ
T =(2.4×10 − 5 K−1)(0.000143138 m2) = α steel L0 Δ T
L
∗(150K ) =(1.2×10 − 5 K−1 )(12 m)(35K)
=0.000000515 m2 =0.00504 m
A = A0 + Δ A=0.000143653
D=5.04×10 − 3 m
m2
A=1.437×10 − 4 m2
Example 5 Example 6
While running, a 70-kg student generates While painting the top of an antenna 225m
thermal energy at a rate of 1200W. If this in height, a worker accidentally lets a
heat could not be removed by perspiration 1.00- L water bottle fall from his
or other mechanisms to maintain a constant lunchbox. The bottle lands in some bushes
body temperature of 370C, for what amount at level ground and does not break. If a
of time could the student run before quantity of heat equal to the magnitude of
irreversible body damage occurs? Protein the change in mechanical energy of the
structures in the body are irreversibly water goes into the water, what is its
damaged if body temperature rises to 440C increase in temperature?
or higher. The specific heat of a typical
human body is around 3480J/kg•K. ρH2O =1,000 kg/
m 3
V =1.00 L=1,000 cm 3 =1×10 − 3
m=70 kg
P=1,200 m3 m
ρH2O = → m=ρ H2O V = 1
W V
kg
Δ T =44 0 h=225 m c=4,190 J /
U = Q → mgh=mc Δ
kg⋅K
C−37 0
C =mc7 Δ (70 kg)(3,480 J / kg⋅K ) T gh (9.8 m / s2)(225
t= = Δ T = = m)4,190 J /
C 0 =7K
TP (7K) 1,200 c
c=3,480
=1,421 W =0.526252983
kg⋅K
Js/ kg⋅K t =1,421.00 K Δ T =0.526
Pt = Q →s K
Pt
Example 7 Example 8
An ice cube tray of negligible mass A copper pot with mass 0.500kg contains
contains 0.350kg of water at 18.00C. How 0.170kg of water at 20.00C. A 0.250-kg
much heat, in Btu, must be removed to block of iron at 85.00C is dropped into the
cool the water to 0.00C and freeze it? pot. Find the final temperature, assuming
m=0.350kg no heat loss to the surroundings.
ccopper = 390 J/kg•K
Δ T =0.0 0 C−18.0 0 C=−18.0C 0
=−18.0K ciron = 470 J/kg•K
c=4,190 J / kg⋅K m 1 =0.500 kg m 2 =0.170 kg
Lf =334×10 3 J / m3=0.250 kg c1 =390 J /
kgre m o v e =−Q l o s s =−(mc Δ T
Q c 2 =4,190 J /
kg⋅K c 3 =470 J /
−mL f ) kg⋅K kg⋅K
T 1 = T 2=20.0 0 C=293.15K
=−(0.35)(4,190)(−18) 0
T 3 =85.0 C =358.15
+(0.35)(334×10 3 ) K
Q gain +Q loss =0
=143,297 J =135.8265403 Btu m1 c1 (T − T 1 )+m 2 c2 (T − T
Qremove=135.827 Btu
2)

+m 3 c3 (T − T 3 )=0
m 1 c1 T 1 +m 2 c2 T 2 +m 3 c3 T
T=
3
T =300.603 K
m1 c 1 +m 2 c 2 +m 3 c3
Example 9
A thirsty mechanic cools a 2.00-L bottle of m 1 c1 T 1 +m 2 c2 T 2 +m 3 c3 T 3 −m 3
T= m1 c 1 +m 2 c 2 +m 3 c3
softdrink (mostly water) by pouring it into L3
a large aluminum mug with mass 0.257kg =287.6506236 K
and adding 0.120kg of ice initially at .00C. T =287.651 K
If the softdrink and mug are initially at
20.00C, what is the final temperature of the Example 10
system? One end of an insulated metal rod is
caluminum = 910 J/kg•K maintained at 0.00C by an ice-water
mixture. The rod is 60.0cm long and has
V =2.00 L ρ = 1,000 kg / a cross-sectional area of 1.25cm2. The
→ m 1 =2 kg m3 heat conducted by the rod melts 8.50g of
m 2 =0.257 kg m 3 =0.120 kg ice in 10min. Find the thermal
0 conductivity of the metal.
T 1 = T 2=20.0 C=293.15
K3 =0.0 0 C=273.15 T H =100 0 C=373.15 K
T
T C = 00 C=273.15 K
cK1 =4,190 J / c 2 =910 J / L 3

kg⋅K f =334×10 J / kg
c 3 =c 1 Lkg⋅K
3 = 3 3 4 × 10 J /
Q gain +Q loss =0 kg 3 L=60.0 cm=0.60 m
A=1.25 cm2 =0.000125 m2
m3 L 3 +m 3 c3 (T − T 3)
m=8.50 g=0.0085 kg
+m 1 c1 (T − T 1 )+m 2 c2 (T − T t =10 min=600 s
2 )=0
 mLf e=0.35
Q
H=t = t r =1.50 cm=0.015
T H − T C mL f m
A = 4 π r2 =0.002827433
H =kA L = m2 T =3,000 K
T S =290 K
k=
At (T H t
4 4
H = Ae σ T − S
− TmL) f L σT
Ae=4,544.546804 W =heat loss
(0.0085)(334×10
C
3
)(0.6)
= rate P =4,544.547 W
(0.000125)(600)(100) input needed

=227.12 W / m⋅K Example 12

k =227.12 W / If solar radiation energy incident per
m⋅K second on the frozen surface of a lake is
Example 11 600W/m2 and 70% of this energy is
The emissivity of tungsten is 0.35. A absorbed by the ice, how much time will
tungsten sphere with radius 1.50cm is it take for a 2.50-cm-thick layer of ice to
suspended within a large evacuated melt? The ice and the water beneath it are
enclosure whose walls are at 290K. What at a temperature of 00C.
power input is required to maintain the
sphere at a temperature of 3,000K if heat H =(0.7)(600 W /m2 )=420 W / 2
A
conduction along the supports is
neglected? m H =(420 W /m2) A
L=2.5 cm=0.025
m
ρ = 1,000
m mkg / m3
ρ= =
V LA
m=ρ LA
3
Lf =334×10
J / kg ρ LA Lf
m L
H = Qt = t f = t
ρ LA Lf
t =(420 W / m2)
A ρ L Lf
t= =19,880.95238 s
420 W
=331.349064
/m2
min
t =331.349
min