Psychology as a

science
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and the mental processes
The term behaviour refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the
term mental processes refers to internal states and processes—such as thoughts and feelings—
that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses.
For example, we cannot directly see a person’s feeling of love or admiration for someone else,
but we can infer how the person feels based on observable verbal statements and actions .
It seeks to understand and explain thoughts, emotions, feelings, and behaviors of individuals
and groups through systematic investigation and observation.
•Science is a process that involves systematically gathering and evaluating empirical evidence to
answer questions and test beliefs about the natural world. Empirical evidence is evidence gained
through experience and observation
• As a science, psychology employs empirical methods to gather and analyze data, allowing
researchers to test hypotheses and draw reliable conclusions about human behavior and
cognition
•Psychology aims not only to describe and explain human behavior but also to predict and
influence behavior through evidence-based practices and interventions.
Here are some key aspects that
define psychology as a science:
1. Empirical Approach: Psychology relies on empirical evidence obtained through systematic
observation and experimentation. This involves the use of rigorous research methods such as
experiments, surveys, and case studies to gather data.
2. Objectivity and Replicability: Scientific inquiry in psychology emphasizes objectivity, where
researchers strive to minimize bias and subjective interpretation in their studies. Moreover,
findings should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct similar
studies and obtain similar results.
3. Theory Development: Like other sciences, psychology aims to develop theories that explain
various aspects of human behavior and cognition. These theories are based on empirical
evidence and help organize and predict behaviors and mental processes.
Psychological theories are systems of ideas that can explain certain aspects of human thoughts,
behaviors and emotions. Psychology researchers create these theories to make predictions for
future human behaviors or events that may take place if certain behaviors exist.
4. Testable Hypotheses: Psychologists formulate hypotheses that are specific and testable. These
hypotheses are derived from theories and guide research studies to either support or refute
them.
hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict
will be the outcome of the study. (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
5.Systematic Observation: Psychology involves systematic observation and measurement of
variables. Researchers use quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data, analyze patterns,
and draw conclusions about human behavior and mental processes.
6.Interdisciplinary Nature: While psychology has its own distinct methods and theories, it often
intersects with other scientific disciplines such as biology, neuroscience, sociology, and
anthropology. This interdisciplinary approach enriches understanding and contributes to the
breadth of psychological research.
7. Application of Findings: Psychological research is applied to various real-world settings,
including clinical practice, education, workplace environments, and public policy. Evidence-
based practices in psychology aim to improve mental health, enhance learning outcomes, and
address social issues.
Goals of Psychology as science
The goals of psychology encompass a broad range of objectives aimed at understanding and explaining
human behavior and mental processes. These goals can be categorized into several key areas:,
Goals of psychology
As a science, psychology has six central goals: description, explanation, Prediction, control,
understanding and application.
Description: Description is the most basic goal; psychologists seek to describe how people behave, think
and feel, what mental processes they engage in. Psychology seeks to describe, through careful
observation and measurement, This involves cataloging and categorizing different behaviors and
psychological phenomena.
Explanation: Psychology aims to explain why people behave and think as they do. This involves
identifying the underlying causes and mechanisms that drive human behavior and mental processes.
Explanations in psychology often draw on hypotheses, theories and empirical research to provide
insights into the factors influencing behavior.
Prediction: One of the goals of psychology is to predict how people will behave and think in various
situations. By understanding patterns of behavior and the factors influencing them, psychologists aim
to predict future behavior and mental processes with reasonable accuracy.
Control: Psychology also seeks to influence and control behavior in beneficial ways. This involves
applying psychological principles to promote positive behaviors and outcomes, as well as to prevent
or mitigate negative behaviors and mental health issues. Techniques such as therapy, counseling, and
behavior modification are examples of how psychology aims to exert control over human behavior.
Understanding: Ultimately, psychology aims to deepen our understanding of individuals and groups,
as well as the relationships between people and their environments. This understanding can lead to
insights into human nature, cognition, emotion, personality, and social interactions
Application -Finally, many psychologists apply psychological knowledge in ways that enhance human
welfare—for example, applying knowledge of social cognition processes to reduce stereotypes and
prejudice.
Scientific temper in Psychology
Scientific temper in psychology refers to the application of scientific principles and methods to
study human behavior and mental processes systematically and rigorously. Here are some key
aspects of scientific temper in psychology:
Empirical Evidence: Scientific temper in psychology emphasizes the importance of gathering
empirical evidence through systematic observation and experimentation. This means that
psychologists collect data using structured methods that can be objectively verified and
replicated by others.
Objectivity: It involves maintaining objectivity in the study of human behavior and mental
processes. Psychologists strive to minimize bias in their observations, interpretations, and
conclusions. This helps ensure that findings are based on evidence rather than personal beliefs
or preconceptions.
Systematic Inquiry: Scientific temper encourages psychologists to approach research questions
systematically. This includes formulating hypotheses, designing studies to test these hypotheses,
collecting relevant data, and analyzing results using appropriate statistical methods.
Critical Thinking: Psychologists with scientific temper critically evaluate existing theories, research
findings, and methodologies. They seek to identify strengths, weaknesses, and limitations in order to
advance knowledge and understanding within the field.
Openness to Revision: Scientific temper in psychology involves being open to revising theories and
conclusions in light of new evidence or alternative interpretations. It recognizes that scientific
knowledge is provisional and subject to refinement based on ongoing research and inquiry.
Ethical Considerations: Scientific temper in psychology also encompasses ethical considerations in
research and practice. This involves ensuring that research participants are treated ethically, with
their rights and well-being safeguarded. Ethical guidelines help maintain the integrity and credibility
of psychological research.
Overall, scientific temper in psychology is essential for advancing the field's understanding of
human behavior and mental processes in a rigorous and reliable manner. It underpins the
credibility and validity of psychological knowledge, facilitating its application in various practical
settings such as therapy, education, and organizational behavior.
Basic and applied research

Science involves basic research, which reflects the quest for knowledge for its own sake, and
applied research, which is designed to solve specific, practical problems.
For psychologists, most basic research examines how and why people behave, think and feel the
way they do.
Basic research may be carried out in laboratories or real-world settings, with human participants
or other species.
In applied research, psychologists often use basic scientific knowledge to design interventions.
 Steps in the
scientific process. The Process of research.
Step 1: Identify a question of interest: Curiosity sparks the first step: identifying a question of interest.
From personal experiences, news events, scientific articles and books, and other sources, scientists
observe something that piques their interest and they ask a question about it.
Step 2: Gather information and form a hypothesis Next, scientists examine whether any studies, theories
or other information already exist that might help answer their question. Then they form a hypothesis.
Step 3: Test the hypothesis by conducting research The third step is to test the hypothesis by conducting
research ie design the study.
Step 4: Analyse data, draw tentative conclusions.At the fourth step, researchers analyse the information
(called data) they collect, find the results, and draw tentative conclusions.
Step 5: Build a body of knowledge and report findings .At the fifth step, scientists build a body of
knowledge about the topic in question. They report findings.
Step 6: Consider open question .They ask further questions formulate new hypotheses and test those
hypotheses by conducting more research
A theory is a set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to
one another.
Theories are broader than hypotheses. Scientists use theories to formulate new hypotheses,
which are then tested by conducting more research.
Scientific attitudes

Curiosity, scepticism and open-mindedness are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry.
Like a child who constantly asks ‘Why?’, the good scientist is intensely and persistently curious.
And like a master detective, the good scientist is an incurable sceptic. Each claim is met with
the reply ‘Show me your evidence’.
Scientists must also remain open-minded to conclusions supported by facts, even if those
conclusions refute their own beliefs.
Advantages of the Scientific
Approach
Basically, the scientific approach offers two major advantages.
 The first is its clarity and precision
The second and perhaps greatest advantage offered by the scientific approach is its relative
intolerance of error.
Methods of Psychological
Research
Research method—a systematic approach to answering scientific questions.
Research methods consist of differing approaches to the observation, measurement,
manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies. In other words, they are general
strategies for conducting studies.
No single research method is ideal for all purposes and situations
The two basic types of methods used in psychology:
Experimental research methods and
Nonexperimental Research Methods (Descriptive/correlational research methods)
Experimental Research methods
•The experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under
carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as
a result.
•The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows researchers to detect cause-and-
effect relationships.
•A variable is any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of the
experiment.
Types of variables
1, Independent variables are conditions that are altered or varied by the experimenter, who sets
their size, amount, or value. Independent variables are suspected causes for differences in
behavior.
2. Dependent variables measure the results of the experiment. That is, they reveal the effects
that independent variables have on behavior. Such effects are often revealed by measures of
performance, such as test scores.
Eg. Mobile phones and driving ability.
Cell phone use is the independent variable—we want to know if cell phone use affects driving
ability.
Driving ability (defined by scores achieved on a test of driving ability) is the dependent variable
—we want to know if the ability to drive well depends on whether a person is using a cell
phone.
3. Extraneous variables are conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the
outcome of the experiment
All other variables that could affect driving ability are extraneous. Examples of extraneous
variables are the number of hours slept the night before the test, driving experience, and
familiarity with the car used in the experiment.
An experimental group consists of participants exposed to the independent variable (cell phone
use in the preceding example). Members of the control group are exposed to all conditions
except the independent variable.
Let’s examine another simple experiment. Suppose you notice that you seem to study better
while listening to your iPod. This suggests the hypothesis that listening to music improves
learning. We could test this idea by forming an experimental group that studies with music. A
control group would study without music Then we could compare their scores on a test.
The control group provides a point of reference for comparison with the scores in the
experimental group. Without a control group, it would be impossible to tell whether music had
any effect on learning.
If the average test score of the experimental group is higher than the average of the control
group, we can conclude that music improves learning. If there is no difference, it’s obvious that
the independent variable had no effect on learning.
In this experiment, the amount learned (indicated by scores on the test) is the dependent
variable. We are asking, Does the independent variable affect the dependent variable? (Does
listening to music affect or influence learning?)
Experimental Control
How do we know that the people in one group aren’t more intelligent
than those in the other group?
It’s true that personal differences might affect the experiment. However, they can be controlled
by randomly assigning people to groups. Random assignment means that a participant
has an equal chance of being in either the experimental group or the control group.
Randomization evenly balances personal differences in the two groups.

In a carefully controlled experiment, the independent variable is the only possible cause for any
effect noted in the dependent variable. This allows clear cause and effect connections to be
identified.
Evaluating Results

How can we tell if the independent variable really made a difference?

This problem is handled statistically. Reports in psychology journals almost always include the
statement, “Results were statistically significant.
What this means is that the obtained results would occur very rarely by chance alone. To be
statistically significant, a difference must be large enough so that it would occur by chance in
less than 5 experiments out of 100. Of course, findings also become more convincing when they
can be replicated (repeated) by other researchers.
Eg.T test, Z test, ANOVA
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique called meta-analysis can be used to combine the results of
many studies as if they were all part of one big study (Cooper, 2010).
Research Participant Bias
In a well designed experiment, you must be careful about what you tell participants. Small bits
of information might create research participant bias, or changes in participants’ behavior
caused by the influence of their expectations. Notice also that experimental group participants
swallowed a pill, and control participants did not. This is another form of research participant
bias. It could be that those who swallowed a pill unconsciously expected to do better.
After all, pills are medicine, aren’t they?
Placebo effect Changes in behavior due to participants’ expectations that a drug (or other
treatment) will have some effect.
Placebo An inactive substance given in the place of a drug in psychological research or by
physicians who wish to treat a complaint by suggestion.
Controlling Research Participant
Bias

How can you avoid research participant bias?

To control for research participant bias, we could use a single-blind experiment.
In this case, participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or the control group
or whether they are receiving a real drug or a placebo. All participants are given the same
instructions and everyone gets a pill or injection. People in the experimental group get a real
drug, and those in the control group get a placebo. Because participants are blind as to the
hypothesis under investigation and whether they received the drug, their expectations
(conscious and unconscious) are the same. Any difference in their behavior must be caused by
the drug.
Researcher Bias

researcher bias—changes in behavior caused by

The unintended influence of a researcher—remains a problem.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that prompts people to act in
ways that make the prediction come true.
The Double-Blind Experiment

Because of research participant bias and researcher bias, it is common to keep both participants
and researchers “blind.”
In a doubleblind experiment, neither subjects nor researchers know who is in the experimental
group or the control group, including who received a drug and who took a placebo. This not only
controls for research participant bias, it also keeps researchers from unconsciously influencing
participants.
Nonexperimental Research
Methods (Descriptive/correlational research
methods)
Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to see only whether there is a link or
association between the variables of interest.
Descriptive research seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave, particularly in
natural settings.
Case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys are research methods commonly used to
describe behaviour.
 A case study
A case study is an in-depth analysis of an individual, group or event.
By studying a single case in detail, researchers typically hope to discover principles that hold true for people or
situations in general.
Data may be gathered through observation, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings or task
performance.
Case studies have several advantages.
• First, when a rare phenomenon occurs, this method enables scientists to study it closely.
• Second, a case study may challenge the validity of a theory or widely held scientific belief.
• Third, a case study can be a vibrant source of new ideas that may subsequently be examined using other
research methods
• Forth Case studies are particularly well suited for investigating certain phenomena, especially
the roots of psychological disorders and the efficacy of selected therapeutic practices
(Fishman, 2007). They can also provide compelling, real-life illustrations that bolster a
hypothesis or theory.
The major limitation of a case study is that
 it is a poor method for determining cause–effect relationships. In most case studies,
explanations of behaviour occur after the fact and there is little opportunity to rule out
alternative explanations.
A second potential drawback concerns the generalisability of the findings: will the principles
uncovered in a case study hold true for other people or in other situations? The question of
generalizability pertains to all research methods, but drawing broad conclusions from a case
study can be particularly risky.
A third drawback is the possible lack of objectivity in the way data are gathered and
interpreted. Such bias can occur in any type of research, but case studies can be particularly
worrisome because they are often based largely on the researcher’s subjective impressions.
 observation:
Observation is a fundamental research method used to gather data about people, behaviors, events, or
phenomena in their natural settings.
The observation method is a research technique that involves systematically observing and recording
behaviors, events, or phenomena to gather data. It's used in many fields, including psychology,
anthropology, and social sciences.
In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation of
behavior
without intervening directly with the subjects. This type of research is called
naturalistic because behavior is allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in
its natural environment—that is, the setting in which it would normally occur.
Of course, researchers have to make careful plans to ensure systematic,
consistent observations (Heyman et al., 2014).
The major strength of naturalistic observation is that it allows researchers to study
behavior under conditions that are less artificial than in experiments.
Another plus is that engaging in naturalistic observation can be a good starting point when little
is known about the behavior under study.
And, unlike case studies and surveys, naturalistic observation can be used to study many
aspects of animal behavior
A major problem with this method is that researchers often have trouble making their
observations unobtrusively so they don’t affect their participants’ behavior. Reactivity occurs
when a subject’s behavior is altered by the presence of an observer
 Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference or manipulation by the researcher.
Characteristics:
• Unobtrusive: The researcher does not interfere or alter the environment.
• Realistic: Provides insights into natural behaviors and interactions.
Advantages:
• Authenticity: Captures behavior as it occurs in real-life settings.
• Contextual Understanding: Provides rich context and background for behaviors.
Disadvantages:
• Lack of Control: The researcher has no control over variables, which can make it hard to isolate specific factors.
• Observer Bias: The presence of an observer can sometimes influence behavior, though efforts are made to minimize
this.
 Participant Observation

Definition: The researcher becomes actively involved in the daily life of the subjects while observing their behavior.
Characteristics:
• Engagement: The researcher participates in the activities being studied.
• Dual Role: Acts both as a participant and an observer.
Advantages:
• In-Depth Insight: Provides a deep understanding of the social dynamics and context.
• Access to Insider Perspectives: Enables researchers to experience the world from the participants' perspectives.
Disadvantages:
• Bias and Subjectivity: The researcher’s involvement may affect the behavior of the participants and their own
observations.
• Ethical Concerns: Can raise ethical issues related to deception and consent
 Non-Participant Observation

Definition: The researcher observes subjects without becoming involved in their activities or interactions.
Characteristics:
• Detached: The observer maintains a distance and does not engage in the activities.
• Objective: Aims to minimize influence on the subjects' behavior.
Advantages:
• Objectivity: Reduces the risk of the observer influencing the behavior being studied.
• Ethical Simplicity: Often easier to manage from an ethical standpoint compared to participant observation.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Insight: May miss out on deeper insights that come from direct involvement.
• Observer Effect: Participants may alter their behavior knowing they are being observed.
Use Cases: Useful in settings where maintaining objectivity is crucial or when participation is impractical.
 Controlled Observation

Definition: Observations conducted in a controlled setting where variables can be manipulated and controlled by the
researcher.
Characteristics:
• Manipulated Environment: The researcher sets up the environment and controls specific variables.
• Structured: Often involves predefined procedures and conditions.
Advantages:
• Control: Allows for the manipulation of variables and control over extraneous factors.
• Replication: Easier to replicate the study and validate findings.
Disadvantages:
• Artificiality: The controlled environment may not accurately reflect real-world settings.
• Limited Generalizability: Findings may not always generalize to natural settings.
Use Cases: Common in experimental research, laboratory settings, and studies requiring precise control over variables.
 Systematic Observation

Definition: A structured approach to observing specific behaviors or events according to a set of criteria or coding scheme.
Characteristics:
• Structured: Observations follow a systematic method or checklist.
• Quantitative: Often involves counting or coding specific behaviors.
Advantages:
• Consistency: Provides a standardized approach to data collection.
• Quantifiable Data: Facilitates the collection of data that can be analyzed quantitatively.
Disadvantages:
• Rigidity: May overlook behaviors not included in the predefined criteria.
• Complexity: Requires detailed planning and clear criteria for observation.
Use Cases: Used in behavioral studies, developmental research, and when specific behaviors need to be tracked
systematically.
 Direct Observation

Definition: Observing the subjects directly, often in real-time.

Characteristics:
• Immediate: Data is collected in real-time as events unfold.
• Direct: The observer is physically present and directly observes the subjects.
Advantages:
• Immediate Data: Provides real-time insights into behaviors and events.
• High Validity: Observations are current and can reflect immediate reactions or behaviors.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Scope: Only captures what is observable in the moment, which may miss broader context or longer-term patterns.
• Observer Presence: The presence of the observer might influence behavior.
Use Cases: Suitable for situations where immediate and accurate data is crucial, such as in educational settings or during live
events.
 Indirect Observation

Definition: Observing the outcomes or effects of behavior rather than the behavior itself.
Characteristics:
• Secondary Data: Observes artifacts, outcomes, or results of behavior rather than the behavior directly.
• Less Intrusive: Does not involve direct interaction with subjects.
Advantages:
• Non-Intrusive: Does not interfere with the subjects or their environment.
• Broader Context: Can provide insights into behaviors that are difficult to observe directly.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Insight: Provides indirect information and may lack detail about the actual behavior.
• Inference: Requires interpretation of outcomes to understand the underlying behaviors.
Interview method
The interview method in psychology is a technique that involves asking questions to individuals
to gather data for psychological research.
The interviewer can use a variety of methods, including
structured,
semi-structured, or
unstructured interviews:
It is linked to the qualitative research approach.
In the interview method, a researcher sits with an individual and verbally asks them close-ended
and open-ended questions regarding the concept being studied.
 structured Interviews
Definition: Structured interviews follow a predetermined set of questions and a specific order. They are highly
standardized.
Characteristics:
• Consistency: Every participant is asked the same questions in the same way.
• Control: There’s less flexibility in the interview process, which helps in maintaining uniformity.
• Data Analysis: Easier to quantify and compare responses because of the uniformity.
Advantages:
• Reliability: Results are more reliable due to the consistent format.
• Ease of Comparison: Responses are easier to compare statistically.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Depth: Doesn’t allow for exploration beyond the predefined questions.
• Less Flexibility: May not capture all nuances of the interviewee’s responses.
Use Cases: Often used in quantitative research, job interviews, and surveys where uniformity is critical.
 Semi-Structured Interviews
Definition: Semi-structured interviews have a set of pre-determined questions but allow for some
flexibility. The interviewer can probe deeper based on responses.
Characteristics:
• Guidance: There’s a clear guide or framework but room for the interviewer to explore topics in more
detail.
• Flexibility: Allows for spontaneous questions and follow-ups based on the interviewee’s responses.
Advantages:
• Depth and Detail: Provides more depth than structured interviews because the interviewer can explore
interesting points that arise.
• Flexibility: Adaptable to the interviewee’s responses and context.
Disadvantages:
• Variation: Less consistency in responses due to different interviewer styles and questions.
• Analysis Complexity: Data analysis can be more complex because responses are not uniform
 Unstructured Interviews

Definition: Unstructured interviews are more like a conversation with no predetermined questions. The
direction of the interview is guided by the interviewee’s responses.
Characteristics:
• Conversational: No fixed questions or order, leading to a more fluid interaction.
• Exploratory: Focuses on exploring topics in depth and discovering new insights.
Advantages:
• Flexibility: Allows for a natural flow of conversation and in-depth exploration of topics.
• Rich Data: Can provide detailed and nuanced information.
Disadvantages:
• Inconsistency: Responses can be very varied, making it difficult to compare data.
• Time-Consuming: Can be more time-consuming to conduct and analyze.
survey
In a survey researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific
aspects of participants’ background, attitudes, beliefs, or behavior.
In survey research, a population consists of all of the individuals about whom we are interested in
drawing a conclusion, such as adolescents,
A Sample, which is a subset of individuals drawn from the larger population.
 A representative sample is one that reflects the important characteristics of the population.
survey researchers typically use a procedure called random sampling, in which every
member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen to participate in the survey
stratified random sampling, is to divide the population into subgroups based on
characteristics such
as gender or ethnic identity.
Merits- In scientific research, surveys are an efficient method for collecting a large amount of information about
people’s opinions, experiences and lifestyles, and they can reveal changes in people’s beliefs and habits over
many years.
But there are also several major drawbacks to surveys.
First, survey data cannot be used to draw conclusions about cause and effect.
Second, surveys rely on participants’ self-reports, which can be distorted by social desirability bias, by interviewer
bias, by people’s inaccurate perceptions of their own behaviour and by misinterpreting survey questions.
Third, unrepresentative samples can lead to faulty generalisations about how an entire population would respond.
 And finally, even when surveys use proper random sampling procedures, once in a while—simply by chance—a
sample that is randomly chosen will turn out not to be representative of the larger population. Overall, in properly
conducted professional and scientific surveys, this happens less than 5 per cent of the time, but it does happen.
 Internet Surveys

Recently, psychologists have started doing surveys and experiments on the Internet.
Web based research can be a cost effective way to reach very large groups of people, especially people
who are not easy to survey any other way (Smyth et al., 2010).
Internet studies have provided interesting information about topics such as anger, decision making, racial
prejudice, what disgusts people, religion, sexual attitudes, and much more.
 Biased samples can limit web based research (because it isn’t easy to control who actually answers your
online questionnaire), but psychologists are getting better at gathering valid information with it (Birnbaum,
2004; Lewis, Watson, & White, 2009)
Correlational research:
measuring associations between
events
associations (or relationships) between naturally occurring events or variables. To
examine
such relationships, scientists typically conduct correlational research, in which they
relate one set of scores to another.
In its simplest form, correlational research has three components:
1. The researcher measures one variable (X), such as people’s birth order.
2. The researcher measures a second variable (Y), such as a personality trait.
3. The researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related.
Remember that correlational research involves measuring variables, not manipulating
them. As such, it is not possible to determine cause and effect when using
correlational designs.
Naturalistic observation and surveys are often used not only to describe events but
also to study associations (relationships) between variables.
The correlation coefficient
A correlation coefficient is a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of the
relation between two variables. When reporting a correlation coefficient (also known
as a Pearson product-moment correlation), we preface it with the letter r (e.g. r
= .36) . This statistic was developed by Karl Pearson (hence the term ‘Pearson’ in its
descriptor); the term ‘product moment’ refers to the mean (or ‘moment’) of a set of
products (or scores) used to calculate the correlation coefficient.
Variables can be correlated either positively or negatively.
A positive correlation means that higher scores on one variable are associated with
higher scores on a second variable.
Thus, social relationships and happiness are positively correlated such that more
satisfying relationships are associated with higher levels of happiness. Similarly,
people’s height and weight are positively correlated (i.e. in general, taller people tend
to weigh more).
A negative correlation occurs when higher scores on one variable are associated with
lower scores on a second variable.
Job satisfaction and job turnover are negatively correlated, which means that workers
who are more satisfied with their jobs tend to have lower rates of turnover (e.g.
quitting, being sacked)
Correlation coefficients range from values of +1.00 to –1.00 .
The plus or minus sign tells you the direction of a correlation (i.e. whether the
variables are positively or negatively correlated). The absolute value of the statistic
tells you the strength of the correlation.
The closer the correlation is to +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) or −1.00 (a
perfect negative correlation), the more strongly the two variables are relate
scatterplots: graphs that show the correlation between two variables.
Correlational studies, while not demonstrating cause–effect, can at least establish
whether there is a real world association between variables.
A second benefit is that correlational research can discover associations that are
subsequently studied under controlled laboratory conditions.
Third, for practical or ethical reasons, some questions cannot be studied with
experiments, but can be examined correlationally. We cannot experimentally
manipulate how religious someone is, but we can measure people’s religiousness and
determine if it is associated with other variables, such as personality traits.
Another benefit is that correlational data allow us to make predictions. If two
variables are correlated, either positively or negatively, knowing the score of one
variable helps us estimate the score on the other variable.