METAL CUTTING, NON–

FERROUS MATERIALS,
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS,
AND COPPER AND ITS
ALLOYS
REPORTERS:
AGA, ANGELO T.
BASA, JOMER C.
CAILING, TYRONE
JR.
DAVID, JOMAR D.
RIMANDO, ADOLFO
VII
01
INTRODUCTIO
N: METAL
CUTTING
METAL CUTTING
Before the mid-18th century, wood was the primary
material for engineering structures, and most
machine tools, like lathes, were designed to shape
wooden parts. The steam engine, with its need for
large, precise metal components, drove early
advancements in metal cutting technology. Early
steam engines were constructed from materials like
grey cast iron, wrought iron, brass, and bronze,
which were easily machined with hardened carbon
steel tools, though cutting speeds were slow to
avoid tool failure.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF METAL CUTTING
PROCESS
1.) CUTTING WITH THE OXY-FUEL GAS
Oxy-fuel gas cutting relies on the reaction between oxygen and iron, which produces iron oxides
and generates significant heat, making the process self-sustaining once the material reaches its
preheat or "kindling" temperature. The process requires a blowpipe, where a central nozzle
delivers a jet of oxygen, while a ring of holes supplies the oxy-fuel gas flame to preheat the
material before cutting begins.
2.) LASER CUTTING
Laser cutting was the first and still is the most important application for
CO2 lasers up to 500W. It is normally carried out with the aid of a gas jet,.
as shown in figure 2, oxygen or compressed air being used for ferrous
materials (as the resultant exothermic reaction assists the cutting
process) and inert gases when cutting non-metals. The process will cut
profiles with precision at high speed and is especially suitable for heat
resisting and alloy steels which are difficult to cut by other means.
For example: Cutting
speeds for mild steel with a
500 \V laser are indicated
by the rule-of-thumb:
3.) Diamond as a Cutting Material
Diamond, the hardest known material, has long been used as a cutting
tool, though its high cost limits its use to applications where other
materials, like carbides or oxides, are ineffective. Diamond tools have a
much lower wear rate and longer tool life, especially in abrasive
conditions, due to their exceptional hardness. This extreme hardness is
linked to diamond's crystal structure, consisting of two interpenetrating
face-centered cubic lattices, where each carbon atom is bonded to four
neighboring atoms through strong covalent bonds.

Man-powered diamond cutting mill in 18th century.

 IMPORTANCE OF COOLANTS AND
LUBRICANTS IN CUTTING OF
MATERIALS:
These cutting fluids perform a very important role, and many operations
cannot be efficiently carried out without the correct type of fluid. They
are used for a number of objectives:

(1) To prevent the tool, work piece and machine from overheating.
(2) To increase tool life.
(3) To improve surface finish.
(4) To help clear the swarf from the cutting area.
02
INTRODUCTIO
N: NON–
FERROUS
MATERIALS
NON-FERROUS
MATERIALS
Non-ferrous materials are metals that
do not contain significant amounts of
iron. These materials are typically
more resistant to corrosion, lighter in
weight, and non-magnetic compared
to ferrous metals (which contain iron).
EXAMPLES OF
NON-FERROUS
MATERIALS
INCLUDE:
Aluminum
Lightweight, corrosion-resistant,
and often used in aircraft,
packaging, and construction.
Copper
Known for its excellent electrical
and thermal conductivity, often
used in electrical wiring and
plumbing.
Lead
Heavy, soft, and corrosion-
resistant, commonly used in
batteries and radiation shielding.
Zinc
Often used for galvanizing steel
to protect against rust.
Nickel
Resistant to oxidation and
corrosion, used in stainless steel
alloys and batteries.
Brass and
Bronze
Alloys primarily made from
copper mixed with other
elements like zinc or tin, used in
decorative, mechanical, and
electrical applications.
03
INTRODUCTIO
N: ALUMINUM
AND ITS
ALLOYS
ALUMINUM AND ITS
ALLOYS
Aluminum is a versatile and widely
used material in various industries.
The first samples of aluminum were
produced in 1825 by Danish physicist
and chemist H.C. Oersted. However, it
was not until 1886 that C.M. Hall
discovered a relatively inexpensive
method for producing aluminum by
electrolyzing a mixture of aluminum
oxide and cryolite, marking a
significant breakthrough in aluminum
production.
 PRODUCTION
PROCESS
Unlike iron, aluminum cannot be purified by blowing air through it, as this
would oxidize the metal and leave impurities behind. Instead, aluminum
ore must be purified through an expensive chemical process before it can
be electrolyzed. Despite the high affinity of aluminum for oxygen, the
metal has excellent corrosion resistance. This is due to a dense,
impervious oxide film that forms on its surface, preventing further
APPLICATIONS OF
oxidation.

ALUMINUM
Unlike iron, aluminum cannot be purified by blowing air through it, as this
would oxidize the metal and leave impurities behind. Instead, aluminum
ore must be purified through an expensive chemical process before it can
be electrolyzed. Despite the high affinity of aluminum for oxygen, the
metal has excellent corrosion resistance. This is due to a dense,
impervious oxide film that forms on its surface, preventing further
oxidation.
 ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Aluminum also has a significant advantage in electrical applications. It
has over 50% of the specific conductivity of copper, and weight-for-
weight, it is a better conductor of electricity than copper. This property
has made aluminum a popular choice for use in electric grids, typically
combined with a steel core for added strength.

MECHANICAL
In its PROPERTIES
pure form, aluminum is relatively soft and weak, with a tensile
strength of about 90 N/mm² in the annealed condition. Therefore, in most
engineering applications, aluminum is used in an alloyed form to enhance
its mechanical properties.
 ALLOYS OF ALUMINUM

Aluminum alloys are created by adding alloying elements to improve

mechanical properties such as tensile strength, hardness, rigidity, and
machinability, as well as enhancing fluidity and casting properties. A
common defect in aluminum alloys is porosity, caused by dissolved gases
(mainly hydrogen) during the melting process. As aluminum solidifies,
hydrogen solubility drops, forming gas bubbles that result in "pinhole"
porosity. This issue is mitigated by treating molten aluminum with a flux
or bubbling nitrogen or chlorine (or the safer hexachlorethane tablets)
through the melt.
 TYPES OF ALUMINUM
ALLOYS
1.) Wrought Alloys

a) Wrought alloys which are not heat – treated

- Alloys in this group are required to have sufficient strength and rigidity
in their work-hardened state while exhibiting good corrosion
resistance, making them suitable for applications such as land-
transport vehicle panels and marine superstructures.
- The mechanical properties of these alloys are achieved through
varying degrees of cold-working, leading to classifications such as
"soft," "quarter hard," "half hard," "three-quarter hard," or "full hard.
- " A key disadvantage is that once these materials are finished, their
mechanical properties cannot be further altered (except through
annealing), unlike precipitation-hardening alloys, which can be
modified through heat treatment.
mechanical properties.
b.) Wrought alloys which are not heat – treated
- Aluminum alloys can undergo changes in mechanical properties when
subjected to suitable heat treatment, allowing for enhanced
performance characteristics.
- This ability is not exclusive to aluminum alloys; it can occur in any
alloy where changes in solubility of specific constituents in the parent
metal take place.
- The phenomenon of heat treatment to modify properties is more
commonly utilized in aluminum-base alloys compared to other types of
alloys, making it a critical aspect of their application in various
industries.
- The strength of aluminum alloys increases over time when subjected
to age hardening, reaching maximum strength in just under a week
after quenching.
- Dr. Alfred Wilm transferred the rights to his patent for this alloy to the
Durener Metal Works in Western Germany, where it was named
"duralumin," marking a significant advancement in aluminum alloy
technology.
 TYPES OF ALUMINUM
2.) Casting ALLOYS
Alloys

a) Cast alloys which are not heat-treatment

- These alloys are commonly utilized for general-purpose applications,
especially in sand-casting processes where specific characteristics are
required.
- Prioritize properties such as rigidity, fluidity during casting, and good
corrosion resistance over strength, making them suitable for various
applications.
- The most widely used alloys in this class typically contain between 9%
and 13% silicon, often with small amounts of copper, enhancing their
casting qualities and corrosion resistance.
b.) Wrought alloys which are not heat – treated
- Many of these alloys consist of approximately 4% copper, while some
contain about 2% nickel, which contributes to their enhanced
properties.
- The precipitation-hardening process in these alloys results from the
combined effects of intermediate phases based on the intermetallic
compounds CuAl₂ and NiAl₃, improving their mechanical properties.
- As cast alloys, they are particularly suited for applications requiring
high strength at elevated temperatures, such as in high-duty pistons
and cylinder heads.
04
INTRODUCTIO
N: COPPER
AND ITS
ALLOYS
COPPER AND ITS
ALLOYS
Copper was undoubtedly the first
metal to be used by Man. In many
countries it is found in small
quantities in the metallic state
and, being
soft, it was readily shaped into
ornaments and utensils.
 PROPERTIES AND USES
- A significantOF COPPER
portion of the world's copper production is utilized
in its unalloyed form, primarily for applications in the electrical
industries due to its excellent conductivity.

- Copper possesses very high specific electrical conductivity,

making it second only to silver in terms of conductivity
performance, with only slight inferiority.

- Considering relative costs, copper is the preferred choice for

industrial applications that require high electrical conductivity,
as it offers a balance of performance and affordability.
 1.) THE ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
The electrical conductivity of copper is
defined by the International Standard of
OF COPPER
Electrical Resistance, which was
adopted in 1913, with copper meeting
this standard classified as 100%
conductive. Advances in copper
production since then have led to
measurements exceeding 100%
conductivity. Impurities and cold working
reduce electrical conductivity; however,
small amounts of certain elements, like
up to 1% cadmium, can be added to
enhance strength without significantly
affecting conductivity—resulting in a
tensile strength of 460 N/mm² compared
to 340 N/mm² for hard-drawn pure
copper, while retaining over 90%
conductivity of soft pure copper. In
contrast, elements like 0.04%
2.) THE COMMERCIAL GRADES OF
Copper can be refined COPPER
using both furnace and electrolytic methods,
leading to different grades. High-conductivity copper, known as Oxygen-
Free High Conductivity (O.F.H.C.), contains at least 99.9% copper and is
used where maximum electrical and thermal conductivities are required.
Fire-refined grades can be categorized as "tough pitch" or "deoxidized."
Tough pitch copper contains small amounts of oxygen (0.04-0.05%),
primarily in the form of cuprous oxide (Cu₂O), which exists as tiny
globules within the copper matrix. These globules have minimal impact
on the material's electrical and other properties.
 3.) THE ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
The Effects OF
of Impurities on the electrical COPPER
properties of copper have
already been mentioned. Quite small amounts of some impurities will
also cause serious reductions in the mechanical properties.
Bismuth is possibly the worst offender, and even as little as 0-002% will
sometimes cause trouble, since bismuth is insoluble in amounts in
excess of this figure, and, like ferrous sulphide in steel, collects as brittle
films at the crystal boundaries. Antimony produces similar effects and,
in particular, impairs the cold-working properties.

Selenium and tellurium make welding difficult, in addition to reducing

the conductivity and cold-working properties; whilst lead causes hot-
shortness, since it is insoluble in copper and is actually molten at the
hot-working temperatures.
THE COPPER-BASE
ALLOYS
The copper-base alloys include
the brasses and bronzes, the
latter being copper-rich alloys
containing either tin, aluminum,
silicon or beryllium; though the
tin bronzes are possibly the best
known.
THE BRASSES
Brasses are significant copper-zinc alloys that contain up to 45% zinc
and are among the most important non-ferrous engineering materials.
According to the equilibrium diagram, copper can dissolve up to 32.5%
zinc at the solidus temperature of 902°C, increasing to 39.0% at 454°C.
With slow cooling, the solubility decreases to 35.2% at 250°C, but at
typical industrial cooling rates, the maximum zinc concentration in solid
solution at room temperature is around 39%. This solid solution is
disordered and can exhibit coring, although the phenomenon is limited
due to the narrow range between liquid and solidus temperatures.
 THE TIN
BRONZES
Bronzes containing approximately 10 % Tin were probably the
first alloys to be used by man. One of the significant factors in
the early Roman conquests was undoubtedly the bronze sword,
and it is thought that in even earlier times metal-workers
realized that a high Tin content, in the region of 10 % produced
a hard bronze whilst less Tin gave a softer alloy.
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YOU!