Sampling Techniques

By
Dr.S.Shaffi Ahamed
 Why should we take sample?, Can’t we study the whole ?
It is possible
depends on objective
-to know how many live in a country
--age and sex categories
--changing pattern of age structure
--when plan for country
-Census
--death in a hospital
--record all the death
It is not possible
-to test the life of bulbs – burn bulbs till it lost its life
-count of RBW in blood – draw all the blood & count
-Count the stars in the sky
It is not necessary
- estimate Hb% in blood – a drop of blood is enough –
blood in any part of the body will provide same
 Study subjects
(i) May be people
-healthy or sick
-census of a certain disease
- clients of a clinic
-workers in a certain occupation
-recipients of a specified Rx
-people exposed to certain stimuli
(ii)May not be people
-in the case of vital events (births, deaths)
-records (vital, medical or civil)
-population may consist of health centers
-village units or hospital units
(iii) Time
- a Wednesday clinic/February births
Sampling in Epidemiology

• Why?
• Unable to study all members of a
population
• Reduce bias
• Save time and money
• Measurements may be better in
sample than in entire population
• Feasibility
 Value of careful sampling - Presidential elections
Early 20th century – opinion was sampled haphazardly by asking
passers-by on a street corner or selected group through mailed
questionnaire.

Then improved system – use of telephone directories or automobile

registration list or magazine subscription lists.

Literary Digest Magazine in USA in 1920, 1930 to predict election–

correct in 1920,1924,1928 and 1934 elections
but failed in 1936 used 2 million responses. They ignored lower
social classes who had neither telephone/automobiles.

Lessons were learned is the

The power of prediction is not necessarily a function of sample size;
and
(i) Sample should be representative of the population surveyed
When and Where sampling technique is
appropriate
• Vast data
– No. of units is very large-S economizes money,
time &effort
• When utmost accuracy is not required
– suitable in those situations where 100%
accuracy is not required
• Where census is impossible
-- not enumerating all individuals
• Homogeneity
– if all the units are alike. S is very easy to use
 Sampling
Sampling is the process or technique of
selecting a sample of appropriate
characteristics and adequate size.
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Definitions
• Sampling unit – the basic unit around which a
sampling procedure is planned
• Person
• Group – household, school, district, etc.
• Component – eye, physiological response
• Sampling frame – list of all of the sampling
units in a population
• Sample – collection of sampling units from the
eligible population
 Sampling in Epidemiology

• Random Sample • Non-random Sample

• Simple random sample • Convenience sample
• Stratified random sample • Systematic sample
• Cluster sample • Consecutive sample
• Adaptive cluster sample • Quota sample
• Multistage sample • Volunteer sample
• Capture-recapture
Sampling in Epidemiology
• Probability (random) sampling
• Sampling in which each sampling unit has a
known and nonzero probability of being
included in the sample

• Replacement
• With replacement – sampling unit returned to
population before next sampling event
• Without replacement – sampling unit not
returned to population before next sampling
event
 Simple Random Sampling Without Replacement A
simple random sample is one in which each of the
possible samples of elements taken from a population of
elements has the same probability of selection. In a
simple random sample without replacement, any
element selected in a sample CANNOT be selected
again for the same sample.

 EXAMPLE A school with 500 students is randomly

giving away five (5) prizes to its students during its
year-end picnic. Each student's name is entered on a
slip of paper and placed in a container. Names are to be
drawn randomly from the container by the principal of
the school. After the name of the winner of a prize is
drawn and the prize awarded, the winner's name is left
out of the container (not replaced). Therefore, once a
student has been selected to win a prize, he or she
cannot be selected again.
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Simple random sampling
• Each sampling unit has an equal chance
of being included in the is sample
• In epidemiology, sampling generally
done without replacement as this
approach allows for a wider coverage of
sampling units, and as a result smaller
standard errors
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Simple random sampling
• Advantages
• Simple process and easy to understand
• Easy calculation of means and variance

• Disadvantages
• Not most efficient method, that is, not the most
precise estimate for the cost
• Requires knowledge of the complete sampling
frame
• Cannot always be certain that there is an equal
chance of selection
• Non respondents or refusals
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Simple random sampling
• Estimate hemoglobin levels in patients with sickle cell
anemia
1. Determine sample size
2. Obtain a list of all patients with sickle cell anemia
in a hospital or clinic
3. Patient is the sampling unit
4. Use Lottery method/ a table of random numbers to
select units from the sampling frame
5. Measure hemoglobin in all patients
6. Calculate mean and standard deviation of sample
SRS Methods

• Lottery Method
• Random Number Table method
 Tables of random numbers

are used after numbers have been

assigned to numbers of the study
population. Use random number table
to select subject. Start anywhere.
Continue selecting until the desired
sample is reached
 Random Number table
1 2 3 4 5
49486 93775 88744 80091 92732
94860 36746 04571 13150 65383
10169 95685 47585 53247 60900
12018 45351 15671 23026 55344
45611 71585 61487 87434 07498
89137 30984 18842 69619 53872
94541 12057 30771 19598 96069
89920 28843 87599 30181 26839
32472 32796 15255 39636 90819
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Systematic sampling
• The sampling units are spaced regularly
throughout the sampling frame, e.g., every 3 rd
unit would be selected

• May be used as either probability sample or not

• Not a probability sample unless the starting point is
randomly selected
• Non-random sample if the starting point is
determined by some other mechanism than chance
Sampling in Epidemiology
• Systematic sample
• Advantages
• Sampling frame does not need to be defined in advance
• Easier to implement in the field
• If there are unrecognized trends in the sample frame,
systematic sample ensure coverage of the spectrum of
units
• Disadvantages
• Variance cannot be estimated unless assumptions are
made
Sampling in Epidemiology
• Systematic sampling
• Estimate HIV prevalence in children born
during a specified period at a hospital
1. Impossible to construct sampling frame in
advance
2. Select a random number between some pre-
specified bounds
3. Beginning with the random number chosen, take
every 5th birth and measure for HIV infection
Sampling in Epidemiology

• Stratified random sample

• The sampling frame comprises
groups, or strata, with certain
characteristics
• A sample of units are selected
from each group or stratum
Stratified Random selection for drug trail in hypertension

Mild Moderate Severe

 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Stratified random sample
• Advantages
• Assures that certain subgroups are represented in a
sample
• Allows investigator to estimate parameters in different
strata
• More precise estimates of the parameters because
strata are more homogeneous, e.g., smaller variance
within strata
• Strata of interest can be sampled most intensively,
e.g., groups with greatest variance
• Administrative advantages
• Disadvantages
• Loss of precision if small number of units is sampled
from strata
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Stratified random sample
• Assess dietary intake in adolescents
1. Define three age groups: 11-13, 14-16, 17-19
2. Stratify age groups by sex
3. Obtain list of children in this age range from
schools
4. Randomly select children from each of the 6
strata until sample size is obtained
5. Measure dietary intake
Sampling in Epidemiology

• Cluster sampling
• Clusters of sampling units are first
selected randomly
• Individual sampling units are then
selected from within each cluster
Sampling in Epidemiology
• Cluster sampling
• Advantages
• The entire sampling frame need not be enumerated
in advance, just the clusters once identified
• More economical in terms of resources than simple
random sampling
• Disadvantages
• Loss of precision, i.e., wider variance, but can be
accounted for with larger number of clusters
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Cluster sampling
• Estimate the prevalence of dental caries in
school children
1. Among the schools in the catchments area, list
all of the classrooms in each school
2. Take a simple random sample of classrooms, or
cluster of children
3. Examine all children in a cluster for dental caries
4. Estimate prevalence of caries within clusters
than combine in overall estimate, with variance
 Sampling in Epidemiology

• Multistage sampling
• Similar to cluster sampling except that
there are two sampling events, instead
of one
• Primary units are randomly selected
• Individual units within primary units
randomly selected for measurement
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Multistage sampling
• Estimate the prevalence of dental caries in school
children
1. Among the schools in the catchment area, list all of the
classrooms in each school
2. Take a simple random sample of classrooms, or
cluster of children
3. Enumerate the children in each classroom
4. Take a simple random sample of children within the
classroom
5. Examine all children in a cluster for dental caries
6. Estimate prevalence of caries within clusters than
combine in overall estimate, with variance
 QUOTA
SAMPLING
QUOTA SAMPLING
 Sampling in Epidemiology

• Convenience sample
• A non-random collection of sampling units
from an undefined sampling frame
• Advantages
• Convenient and easy to perform
• Disadvantages
• Not statistical justification for sample
 Sampling in Epidemiology
• Convenience sample
• Case series of patients with a particular
condition at a certain hospital
• “Normal” graduate students walking down
the hall are asked to donate blood for a study
• Children with febrile seizures reporting to an
emergency room
Investigator decides who is enrolled in a
study
Sampling in Epidemiology
• Consecutive sample
• A case series of consecutive patients with a condition of
interest
• Consecutive series means ALL patients with the condition
within hospital or clinic, not just the patients the
investigators happen to know about
• Advantages
• Removes investigator from deciding who enters a study
• Requires protocol with definitions of condition of interest
• Straightforward way to enroll subjects
• Disadvantage
• Non-random
 Sampling in Epidemiology

• Consecutive sample
• Outcome of 1000 consecutive patients presenting
to the emergency room with chest pain
• Natural history of all 125 patients with HIV-
associated TB during 5 year period

Explicit efforts must be made to identify and

recruit ALL persons with the condition of
interest
 Random sampling:
Availability sampling:
every combination of a given
selecting on the basis of
size has an equal chance of
convenience.
being chosen.
Cluster sampling:
dividing the population into Snowball sampling:
clusters, typically on the basis asking individuals studied to
of geography, and taking a provide references to others.
sample of the clusters.
Stratified sampling:
Multi-stage sampling: dividing the population into
sampling subunits within groups on the basis of some
sampled units. characteristic and then
sampling each group.

Quota sampling: Systematic sampling:

selecting fixed numbers of choosing every nth item from
Suniti Solomon et al
Prevalence and risk factors of HIV 1 and HIV 2 infection in Urban
and rural areas in TN.
TN Int. J. of STD & AIDS 1998;9:98-103

Objective: Find prevalence and risk factors. Setting: Centres in

metropolitancity & municipality. Subjects: Individuals in Tamil nadu.
Sampling Porcedure:

“ Health camps were organised in 5 urban and 5 rural

centres to cover entire state graphically”

“ Every third person screened, in the active reproductive

age group, were recruited as a subject. At each camp the
inclusion of subjects continued until 200 persons were
recruited”
Mary Sexton et al.
Sex differences in the use of asthma drugs: Cross-sectional study.
BMJ 1998; 317: 1434-7

Objective : To assess the use of asthma drugs. Design : Cross-

sectional study. Setting: Six general practices in East Anglia.
Subjects : Adults aged 20-54 with Asthma

Sampling method
“identify cases with asthma received drugs one year before –
through database from each participating practices. The sample
was stratified into three categories of severity corresponding the
prescribed drugs
Bronchodilator alone (mild) 38%
Steroids (moderate) 57%
Nebulizer treatment (severe) 5%
Use SRS to select subject in each practice based on proportion of
use of each type of drug within the practice
S. Anuradha
Genital ulcer disease and acquisition of HIV infection.
Indian J Med Microbiol 1992; 10(4):265-269

Objective : To find out the association of HIV infection with

genital ulcer disease . Setting : Dept. of STD, GGH, Chennai.
Subjects : Individials attending the STD dept.

Sampling procedure

‘ Blood samples from first 20 patients were taken for

analysis once a week for 40 weeks’.

Statistical analysis : Data were analysed by using SPSS/PC +

ver 4.0. The strength of association between the variables and
HIV serological status was estimated using odds ratio (OR) and
their 95% Confidence Intervals(CI)
Reidy A et al.
Prevalence of series eye disease and visual
impairement in a north London population:
Population based, cross sectional study.
BMJ 1998; 316:1643-

Objective: To estimate eye disorders and of

visual impairement
Design: Cross-sectional survey.
Setting : General Practices in metropolitan in
England.
Subjects: aged 65 or older & registered
Sampling Procedure
17 general practice group

Random sampling
7 were selected

People age 65 or older were registered with the

general practices. Total 750-850 in each Gen Pract

Use SRS to select eligible people in each practice

One third in each practices were selected to form survey sample

A die is rolled to decide which
one of the six volunteers will get
a new , experimental vaccine
A. Simple Random sampling
B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Systematic random sampling
A sample of students in a school is
chosen as follows: Two students are
selected from each batch by picking
roll number at random from the
attendance registers
A. Simple Random sampling
B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Systematic random sampling
4. A target population for a telephonic survey is
picked by selecting 10 pages from a total of 100
pages from a telephone directory by using a
table of random numbers. In each of the
selected pages, all listed persons are called for
Interview

A. Simple Random sampling

B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Systematic random sampling
The number 35 is a two-digit random
number generated by a calculator. A sample
of two wheelers in a state is selected by
picking all those vehicles have registration
numbers ending with 35

A. Simple Random sampling

B. Stratified random sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Systematic random sampling