Global trends

Chapter two
Understanding foreign policy and diplomacy

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 Defining National Interest
• National interest is the reason of state to justify its actions and
policy towards other states at international level.

• Is a set of values, orientation, goals and objectives that a given

country would like to achieve in its international relations.

• Is the main driving force that determines the states foreign policy.

• An image of the future state of affairs and future set of conditions

that governments through individual policy makers aspire to bring
about by wielding influence abroad and by changing or sustaining
the behaviors of other states. 2
Con’t…’
• The ambition of governments, what governments
aspire to full fill in its future interaction with others.

• The means that states employ to realize their future

ambitions.

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Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors
Foreign Policy-
Foreign policy of a state is literally defined us the actions, decisions and goals
that states pursue/follow/ towards the outside world.
The sets of objectives and instruments that a state
adopts to guide its relation with the outside world.
Serve as guidelines for choosing among various courses of
action in specific situations in international affairs
FOREIGN POLICY is shaped by both external/systemic factors and internal
factors.
 International regimes, international organizations, the prevalence of great
powers at international level are some of systemic factors that affects on the
foreign policy of a state.
 Internally, the economic, technological and military capabilities of states
heavily affect foreign policy 4
States adopt foreign policy to achieve and promote their national interests
often defined as the short term, medium term and long term goals. Such
classifications of foreign policy objectives is based on the combination of the
three criteria:(1) the value placed on the objective; (2) the time element
placed on its achievement; and (3) the kind of demands the objective
imposes on other states in international system.
To this end, states establish diplomatic relations and contacts and use
different tactics to protect, often to maximize, their national interest.

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Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives)
 Core interests and values are most frequently related to the self preservation of political
and economic systems, the people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state.
 These are short-range objectives because others goals cannot be realized if the
existence of the state and its political units are not ensured
 Goals for which most people are willing to make ultimate
sacrifices.
 Stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy and
become article of faith that society accepts without any
questioning it.
 They are sacrosanct by entire peoples residing in the state.

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Middle Range Objectives
 This would include the attempts of government to meet economic-
betterment demands and needs through international action
 Middle range objectives are drastically varies across states due to the d/nce in
the level of economic and technological progress, as well as the military
capability.
 Social welfare and economic development, cannot be achieved through self-
help, as most states have only limited resources, administrative services, and
technical skills.
 Interdependence means that to satisfy domestic needs and aspirations, states
would have to interact with others. Trade, foreign aid, access to communication
facilities, sources of supply, and foreign market are for most states necessary for
increasing social welfare. 7
Long- Range Objectives
 Are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or
ideological organization of the international system, and rules governing
relations in that system.
 The difference between middle-range are not only to different time
elements inherent in them; there is also a significant difference in scope.
 In pressing for middle range goals , states make particular demands
against particular interest;
 In pursuing long range goals, states normally make universal demands,
for their purpose is no less than to reconstruct an entire international
system according to a universally applicable plan or vision.
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 Here it must be noted that such long range visions and dreams may have
international effects as far as they are complemented by the capabilities
and powers; otherwise the long range visions will not have any
international significance beyond paper consumption and bombast level.
 This, however, doesn’t necessarily imply that states that are less capable,
often those middle powers and less developing countries, does not
formulate long range objective.
 Every country has its own visions and ambition proportional to its relative
strength and capabilities to be realized in the long run. 9
Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

Foreign policy behavior-the actions that states take

towards each other.
 These actions usually are not as ends in themselves.
 Arnold Wolfers, suggested that all foreign policy behavior
ultimately boils down to three possible patterns:
 Self-preservation
 Self-extension
 Self-abnegation

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Seen from the above perspective, the foreign policy patterns of
countries such as United States can be categorized as self-
preservation(mantaining the status quo)
United States, following second world emerged as one of the
strongest actor, super power in international relations.
One can say, with no doubt, that the international institutions (IMF,
World Bank, GATT/WTO) that were established following Second
World War have been strongly shaped by United States
After the collapse of USSR and decline of communist ideology U.S
become the sole defender of the international system and the liberal
economic-political order
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• On the other hand newly emerging powers such as China, India, Brazil,
Germany and others are competing to restructure the international
institutions and different regimes so as to create enabling environment to
promote their national interest. Such policy trend can be equated with
Wolfers’ model of self-extension.
• The third model, i.e. self-abnegation reflects the foreign policy trends that
are being displayed in Less Developing Countries (LDC).
• This can be seen in the weak states of the world which fail to defend and
promote their national interests in their external relations.
• States that are weak and very much dependent on foreign aid are profoundly
caught with many problems in order to pursue an autonomous policy.
• Such countries may submit to such challenges and compromise its long
lasting national interest for temporary and immediate benefits
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 What are FP Objectives?

Survival/security of the state and the regime?

 wellbeing and safety of its population?
 Promoting economic growth/development
 Promoting peace?

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 Instruments of foreign policy
1 .Diplomacy : effective communications -FORMAL OR INFORMAL -to resolve
issues of concern of states peacefully. It involves:
 Negotiations
 Establishing diplomatic missions
• These talks, negotiations or mediation can take place at a bilateral level
(between two states) or multilateral level (involving a number of states)
Bargaining –the heart of diplomacy
States use of the manipulation of carrots and Sticks approaches to
influence the behaviors of others
What tactics could be used?
1) The stick approach: Threats(hypothetical) and
punishment(action-real)
2) The carrot approach: promise(hypothetical) and rewards(real)14
2 .Economic instruments:
Trade sanctions: embargo, blockade , tariff, quota
3. Propaganda: information or material that is spread to make
people feel a certain way.
 Subversive activities
 Use of forces

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Foreign Policy Dimensions
 These dimensions include alignment, scope and modus operandi.
I. Alignment
 Formal agreement on alliances or neutrality,
 it can also describe the general affective orientation of a country, i.e., which
state or states tend to side with on key issues, countries can slope towards one
side or another in some strategic issues without necessarily becoming part of
formal alliance. For example, Israel, which is not a formal ally of U.S, has sided
with the United States on many issues.
 A country’s alignment behavior can vary from time to time during its history in
response to changing circumstances and policy decisions.
 Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as alliance, and non-
alignment. 16
Con’t...
Alliances- are formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance
 Allied countries can pool their military resources, acquire access to foreign bases
and stake out territories that enemies are on notice will be denied them by force if
necessary.
Yet an alliance state also risks interference by allies in its domestic affairs, the
possibility being dragged.
Non-alignment- has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing state during
cold war.
 Most developing countries had a movement of NAM in which they called for a new
foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed ignoring both the West and East bloc
politics and alliances.
Although that was practically impossible, NAM had noble agenda that called for the
South-South cooperation. 17
II. Scope
• The second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a country’s activities and interests

• A country’s scope of contact can affect the outcome of disputes and crises.

• With regards to the scope of activities, one can identify at least three patterns of foreign
policy behaviors.
 Act in Global terms- Major Powers that have defined their interest in global terms, interacting
regularly with countries in nearly every region of the world.
• A country such as U.S.A has often defined its national interest in global terms, and it has more or
less the wherewithal and the capability to influence world events.
• Despite it has been declining in economic terms, the country’s military presence and diplomatic
communication in every part of the world make her global actor.
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Con’t…
As Regional terms-interacting primarily with
neighboring states in the same geographical area
except for contacts, frequently concerning economic
issues such as trade; with major actors like United
States and China outside their region.
• For example, South Africa is a regional actor in Africa
in general and in Southern Africa in Particular. It is
the most important actor in regional organizations
such as SADDIC and AU.
• India in South Asia, China in entire Asia and also in
other parts of world.
Policy of Isolationism-Some moments in history,
such as key weakness or geographic remoteness, may
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III. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’
• Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to address different
issues. Still others very much rely on unilateral means.
• The multilateralist state is, seek solutions to problems through
diplomatic forums, such as the UN, rather than bilateral, approaches.
• Most developing countries used the multilateral approaches.
• The multilateral forum would enhance collective barraging power.
• In addition, establishing bilateral relations are often found to be costly.
• The best strategy to address issues with the spirit of cooperation and
peace.
• Germany, Scandinavian countries fall under this category.
• countries may opt to rely on unilateral means of settling different issues
• They play the carrot and stick diplomacy to affect the outcomes of
events. Intervention, threat of use of force
• The more unilateral a state is the more likely to initiate actions in
international relations or to resist initiatives taken by others
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