Section 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Part III
Problem Solving and
Reasoning
Learning Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, you should be able
to:

a. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and

arguments made about mathematics and Mathematical
concepts (K)
b. Write clear and logical proofs (K)
c. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational
problems following Polya’s four steps (S)
d. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and
solving problems (V)
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Core Idea. Mathematics is not just about numbers; much
of it is problem solving and reasoning.

• Inductive and Deductive reasoning

• Intuition proof, and certainty
• Polya’s 4-steps in problem solving
• Problem solving strategies
• Mathematical problems involving patterns
• Recreational problem using mathematics.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Logic is
not…
• Logic is not the study
of persuasion and
manipulative rhetorical
devices.

Logic is…
Logic is a tool to develop reasonable
conclusions based on a given set of data.
Logic is free of emotion and deals very
specifically with information in its purest
form.
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Logic is…

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 DEFINITIONS

Logic – The science of correct

reasoning.
Reasoning – The drawing of
inferences or conclusions from
known or assumed facts.

Reasoning can either be inductive or deductive.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Watch: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=yAjkQ1YqLEE

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the
process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining
specific examples.
Deductive reasoning is the
process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or
principles.
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Deductive vs. Inductive
Reasoning
• The difference:
inductive reasoning uses patterns to arrive at
a conclusion (conjecture)

deductive reasoning uses facts, rules,

definitions or properties to arrive at a
conclusion.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive vs Deductive
Reasoning
In Deductive Reasoning,

TRUE
PREMISE + TRUE
PREMISE = TRUE
CONCLUSION

while in Inductive Reasoning,

TRUE
PREMISE + TRUE
PREMISE = PROBABLY TRUE
CONCLUSION

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive vs Deductive
Reasoning
In Deductive Reasoning,

TRUE
PREMISE + TRUE
PREMISE = TRUE
CONCLUSION

All men Socrates Socrates

are is a is a
mortals. man. mortal.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive vs Deductive
Reasoning
In Inductive Reasoning,

TRUE
PREMISE + TRUE
PREMISE = PROBABLY TRUE
CONCLUSION

My professor
She wears a
wore blue She will have the
green blouse
blouse and same color of blouse
and green
blue shoes and shoes tomorrow.
shoes today.
yesterday.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

1 is an odd number.
11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Therefore, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?
Geometry example…

What is the measure of angle x?

60◦

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?
Geometry example…

What is the next figure in the sequence?

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

All guavas are fruits.

All fruits grow on trees.
Therefore, all guavas grow on
trees.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
8...

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

2, 4,
8, . . .

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Inductive or Deductive
Reasoning?

Here’s another sequence:

6, 13, 20, 27,…

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Answer

DEDUCTIV
E
Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Answer

INDUCTIV
E
Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Intuition
• It is similar to guessing.
• It is also called reasoning by guessing or reasoning
by common sense.
• It requires less mental activity.
• It is the ability to acquire knowledge without
proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without
understanding how the knowledge was acquired.
• It is highly subjective.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Intuition
Using your intuition

1. and which is bigger?

2. Look at the figure X and Y. Which is smaller?

X Y

3. After the first meeting in Mathematics in the

Modern World what did you say?

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Proofs
It is a sequence of true facts (statements) placed in a
logical order. In proving, the following may be used as
reasons:

• the given information (the hypothesis)

• definition and undefined terms
• algebraic properties
• postulates of geometry
• previously proven geometric conjectures
(theorems)
Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Proofs
Exampl Find the value of x in 2 ( x + 1 ) =
e: 6x + 4

Statements Reasons
1. 2 ( x + 1) = 6x + 4 Given
2. 2x + 2 = 6x + 4 Distributive Property
3. 2x + 2 – 6x -2 = 6x + 4 – APE
6x – 2
4. -4x (-1/4) = 2 (-1/4) MPE
5. x = -1/2 Simplification

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Certainty

What is certainty? https://youtu.be/7Ttb9Q8VClM

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Mathematical problem solving is finding a way
around a difficulty, around an obstacle, and finding a
solution to a problem that is unknown.

-
George Polya

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
George Polya (1973) – father of problem solving

Four phases of problem solving

1. Understand the problem
(SEE)
2. Devise a plan (PLAN)
3. Carry out the plan (DO)
4. Look back (CHECK)

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
UNDERSTAND THE
PROBLEM
• Look for information given
• Visualize the information
• Organize the information
• Connect the information

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
DEVISE A PLAN

• To make a • To make a calculated

representation guess
- draw a diagram - guess and
- make a check
systematic list - look for a
- use equations pattern
- make
suppositions
Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
DEVISE A PLAN

• To go through the • To change the

process
- act it out problem
- restate the problem
- work - simplify the
backwards problem
- solve part of the
problem

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving

CARRYING OUT THE

PLAN
• Use mathematical knowledge

• Use mathematical skills

• Use logical thinking

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
LOOK BACK

• Check solution
– Is it reasonable?
• Improve on the method used
• Seek alternative solutions
• Extend the method to other
problems

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Example:
A survey on Solid Waste Management at
PUP Mulanay has 125 respondents. 45% of
them said that they were properly disposing
their garbage. How many respondents said that
they were properly disposing their garbage?

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Step 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Make sure that you read the question

carefully several times.
We are looking for a number that is 45% of
125 respondents, we will let x = the number of
respondents who properly disposing their
garbage

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Step 2: DEVISE A PLAN

a number that is 45% of 125

x = 0.45(125)

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Step 3: CARRY OUT THE
PLAN.

*Multiply
x = 0.45(125)
x = 56.25

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
Step 4: LOOK BACK
56.25 is 45% of 125

FINAL ANSWER: 56 respondents said

that they were properly disposing their
garbage.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
1. A police station has 25 vehicles of
motorcycles and cars. The total number of
wheels is 70. Find the number of motorcycles
and cars the station has.

2. Find the next number in the sequence.

5, 9,13,17,21,25,…

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
3.
Solving
Anne has a certain amount of money in her bank
account on Friday morning. During the day she wrote a
check for Php 24.50, made an ATM withdrawal of Php80
and deposited a check for Php235. At the end of the day,
she saw that her balance was Php451.25. How much
money did she have in the bank at the beginning of the
day?

4. Two cars left, at 8:00 AM, from the same point, one
traveling east at 50 mph and the other travelling south at
60 mph. At what time will they be 300 miles apart?

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Polya’s 4-steps in Problem
Solving
5. An Algebra Test consists of ten multiple choice
questions. Ten points are given for each correct
answer and three points are deducted for each
incorrect answer. If Joshua did all questions and
scored 48, how many incorrect answers did he
have?

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns

A Sequence is a set of things (usually numbers)

that are in order. If the sequence goes on forever
it is called an infinite sequence, otherwise it is a
finite sequence

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
• Infinite Sequence is a function whose
domain is the set of positive integers. The
function values a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an-1, an, … are
terms of the sequence.

Examples
1. {1, 2, 3, 4 ,...} is a very simple sequence (and it is an infinite
sequence)
2. {20, 25, 30, 35, ...} is also an infinite sequence
3. {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...} is an infinite sequence where every term
doubles Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
• If the domain of the function consists of the
first n positive integers only, the sequence
is a finite sequence.
Examples
1. {1, 3, 5, 7} is the sequence of the first 4 odd numbers (and is a finite
sequence)
2. {4, 3, 2, 1} is 4 to 1 backwards
3. {a, b, c, d, e} is the sequence of the first 5 letters alphabetically
4. {f, r, e, d} is the sequence of letters in the name "fred"

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
• A general sequence a1, a2, a3, a4, …,
an-1, an, … having the first term a1, the
second term is a2, the third term is a3,
and the nth term, also called the
general term of the sequence, is an.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
Write the first three terms of the sequence whose
nth term is given by the formula an = 3n + 1

• Solution:
an = 3n + 1
a1 = 3(1) + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4
a2 = 3(2) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
a3 = 3(3) + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, and
10.
Problem Solving and Reasoning
 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns

The difference table shows the differences

between successive terms of the sequence.
The difference in rows maybe the first,
second, and third differences.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
Construct the difference table to predict the
next term of each sequence.

a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …

Sequence 3 7 11 15
19 23
First Differences 4 4 4 4
4
The next term is 23Solving and Reasoning
Problem
 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, …

Sequence 1 4 9 17
28 42
First Differences 3 5 8 11
14
Second Differences 3 3 3 3
The next term is 42.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …

Sequence 6 9 14 26 50
91 154
First Differences 3 5 12 24 41 63
Second Differences 2 7 12 17 22
Third Differences 5 5 5 5
The next term is 154.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
The Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci Numbers

F1 = 1, F2 = 1, and Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 for n 3.

Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to

find the seventh and eighth Fibonacci
numbers.
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
Solution:

The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3,

5, and 8. The seventh Fibonacci number is the
sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers.
Thus,
F 8 = F7 + F6
F 7 = F 6 + F5 = 13 + 8
= 8+5 = 21
= 13

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
• Determine whether each of the following statements
about Fibonacci numbers is true or false.
(Note: The first 10 terms of
the Fibonacci sequence are
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
a. If n is even, then Fn is an odd number. and 55).

b. 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn+1 for n3

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
Solution:
a. An examination of Fibonacci numbers shows that
the second Fibonacci number, 1, is odd and the
fourth number, 3, is odd, but the sixth Fibonacci
number, 8, is even. Thus the statement “If n is
even, then Fn is an odd number” is false.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Mathematical Problems Involving
Patterns
Solution:
b. Experiment to see whether 2Fn - Fn-2 = Fn+1 for several
values of n. For instance, for n = 7, we get
2Fn - Fn-2 = Fn+1
2F7 – F7-2 = F7+1
2F7 - F5 = F8 (Note: The first 10 terms of
2(13) – 5 = 21 the Fibonacci sequence are
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
26 – 5 = 21 and 55).
21 = 21 TRUE

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
Mathematical activity which involves
mathematical puzzles and games.
Most topics require no deeper knowledge in
advanced mathematics.
Some of the topics are magic square, logic
puzzles, aesthetics, culture mathematics, and
others.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
Magic Square of Order 3
4 9 2
3 5 7
Watch:
8 1 6 4_Steps_to_Math_Prob
lem_Solving(360p)

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
Palindromes of squares
• = 1
• = 121
• = 12,321
• = 1,234,321
• = 123,454,321
• = 12,345,654,321
• = 1,234,567,654,321
• = 123,456,787,654,321

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
9-digit Palindromic
Plateau Primes Primes
Smoothly Undulating 5 Consecutive Digits
18888881 323232323 120343021
199999991 727272727 354767543
355555551 919191919 759686957

8 like Digits Peak Primes Valley Primes

111181111 123494321 765404567
111191111 345676543 987101789
777767777 345686543 987646789

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
Pascal’s Triangle
The most famous palindrome triangles named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623-
1662).
The Fibonacci sequence can be found in the sum of the diagonals of the Pascal’s Triangle.
1
11
121
1331
1 464 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 Recreational Problems using
Mathematics
Given a magic six pointed star, place the
numbers 1 to 12 in the circles, using one of
each. Each line of four numbers should have
the same total.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

 64

Thanks!
Any questions?
You can find me at:
[email protected]

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Using Different Types of Reasoning:

Reasoning is like the roadmap that guides us through the mathematical

landscape. There are various types of reasoning, each with its own strengths.

Deductive Reasoning: This is the classic "top-down" approach. Start with general
principles or hypotheses and derive specific conclusions. It's like solving a puzzle
by putting the pieces together.

Inductive Reasoning: Here, we observe specific instances and make

generalizations. It's like looking at a series of examples and figuring out the rule
governing them.

Abductive Reasoning: This is the Sherlock Holmes of reasoning. It involves making

the best guess based on the information at hand. It's not about certainty, but
about what is the most likely explanation.
Writing Clear and Logical Proofs:

Proofs are the backbone of mathematics. They're like the evidence in a court case,
convincing us that a mathematical statement is true. A good proof is clear, logical,
and leaves no room for doubt.

Start with Definitions: Clearly define your terms. If your audience isn't on the same
page with your terms, your proof might as well be written in another language.

Logical Structure: Your proof is a journey. Each step should follow logically from the
previous one. It's like building a sturdy bridge—every piece supports the next.

Use Symbols and Notation Effectively: Mathematical notation is like a concise

language. Learn to speak it fluently, and your proofs will be much more concise and
elegant.
Solving Problems with Polya’s Four Steps:

George Polya, a mathematician, gave us a problem-solving framework that's like a

Swiss army knife for tackling math problems.

Understand the Problem: Before jumping in, make sure you understand the
problem. What's the question asking? What information do you have?

Devise a Plan: Think about the steps you need to take to solve the problem. What
tools do you have at your disposal? What similar problems have you solved before?

Carry Out the Plan: This is where you put your plan into action. Execute each step
carefully, like following a recipe.

Reflect on the Solution: After solving the problem, take a step back. Does your
answer make sense? Can you think of alternative approaches? This reflection is
crucial for learning and improving.
Organizing Methods and Approaches:

Imagine you're a chef in a busy kitchen. To create a masterpiece, you need

a well-organized kitchen and a clear recipe.

Document Your Process: Write down your thoughts and steps as you solve
a problem. This not only helps you keep track but also makes it easier to
spot mistakes.

Create a Toolbox of Strategies: As you encounter different types of

problems, build a toolbox of strategies. It's like having a set of tools for
different tasks.

Review and Revise: After solving problems, review your approach. Could it
be more efficient? More elegant? Don't be afraid to revise and improve.
 The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is always 1800
Deductive Reasoning:

Start with the definition of a triangle and the fact that it has three sides.
Use the known property that the sum of angles in a straight line is 180 0.
Deduce that the sum of interior angles of a triangle must be 180 0

Inductive Reasoning:

Observe and measure the interior angles of several triangles.

Notice that, regardless of the type or size of the triangle, the sum of the interior angles is always 180 0.
Inductively conclude that this pattern holds true for all triangles.

Abductive Reasoning:

Given the consistent observation that the sum of interior angles is 180 0 in various triangles, posit that this pattern
might be a fundamental property of triangles.
Assume that triangles inherently follow this rule based on the abductive inference from repeated observations.