UNIT 4: EVOLUTION

4.1. EVOLUTION
4.1.1. Definition
Evolution is a change in genetic composition of a population over
successive generations, which may be caused by meiosis, hybridization,
natural selection or mutation.
This leads to sequence of events by which the population diverges from
other populations of the same species and may lead to the origin of a new
species.
Theories of the origin of life
The origin of life means the emergence of heritable and evolvable self-
reproduction.
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“Origin of Life” is a very complex subject, and oftentimes controversial.
Two opposing scientific theories that existed on this complex subject for a
long time were the so called intelligent design and creationism.
The big bang theory of the origin of the Universe gave new ideas about
the topic of biological evolution. In the theory it has been hypothesized
that complex life-forms on Earth, including humans, arose over a period
of time from simple bacteria like tiny cells by a process of self-
organization similar to the evolution of the Universe of simple material
structures toward more and more complex structures. There are several
theories about the origin of life. Some of them are mentioned below.
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1. Special creationism
Special creationism explained that the formation of life on earth may
have been taken place due to supernatural or divine forces. However,
acceptance of evolution is linked to scientific thinking.
There are fundamental differences between special creationism and
scientific thinking in that it is unlikely that the difference between the two
will ever be resolved. Special creation states that at some stage, some
supreme being created life on Earth. There are many different versions of
special creation, linked with different religions. Often, there is
considerable variation as to how rigidly the special creation theory is
interpreted within a religion.
2. Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis)
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Spontaneous generation suggests that some life can evolve
spontaneously’ from non-living objects. Aristotle (384-322) articulate the
theory. It was once believed that life could come from non-living things,
such as mice from com, flies from bovine manure, maggots from rotting
meat, and fish from the mud of previously dry lakes.
In 1668, Francesco Redi, designed a scientific experiment to test the
spontaneous creation of maggots by placing fresh meat in jars. One jar
was left open; the others were covered with a cloth.
Days later, the open jar contained maggots, whereas the covered jars
contained no maggots.
He did note that maggots were found on the exterior surface of the cloth
that covered the jar.
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Redi successfully demonstrated that the maggots came from fly eggs and
thereby helped to disprove generation.
In 1748, the English priest John Needham (1713-1781) reported the results of
his experiments on spontaneous generation.
Needham boiled mutton broth and then tightly stoppered the flasks. Eventually
many of the flasks became cloudy and contained
microorganisms. He thought organic matter contained a vital force that could
confer the properties of life on non-living matter.
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A few years later, the Italian priest and naturalist Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-
1799) improved on Needham’s experimental design by first sealing glass
flasks that contained water and seeds. If the sealed flasks were placed in
boiling water for 3/4 of an hour, no growth took place as long as the flasks
remained sealed. He proposed that air carried germs to the culture medium,
but also commented that the external air might be required for growth of
animals already in the medium. The supporters of spontaneous generation
maintained that heating the air in sealed flasks destroyed its ability to
support life.
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John Needham
John Needham, an English biologist, did yet another
experiment in 1745 with boiled broths. He infused a broth by
mixing plant and animal matter and boiled it in the belief that
it would kill all the microorganisms. He sealed the broth and
left it for a few days. He observed that the broth had become
cloudy and that it has microscopic organisms in it. He
reiterated the spontaneous generation theory and many of
his peers believed him. However, in reality, the broth was not
boiled vigorously so as to kill all the microorganisms.
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Lazzaro Spallanzani
Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian biologist, reattempted
Needham’s experiment in 1768. He took animal and plant
matter-infused broths and boiled them vigorously. He kept
one of the jars sealed and left the other one open to the air.
According to his observations, the sealed jar was clear and
did not have any growth. He then concluded that air was the
force that was introducing microbes into the flask.
By this time, there was increased skepticism among
scientists about the spontaneous generation theory.
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Fransesco Redi's experiment set up.

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Louis Pasteur showed that broth (or wine) only went sour if
micro-organisms were allowed to enter. Also no micro-
organisms appeared in the broth unless they were allowed to
enter from the outside . Pasteur made a series of flasks with
long, twisted necks ("swan-neck" flasks), in which he boiled
broth to sterilize it. His design allowed air inside the flasks to
be exchanged with air from the outside, but prevented the
introduction of any airborne microorganisms, which would
get caught in the twists and bends of the flasks' necks. If a
life force besides the airborne microorganisms were
responsible for microbial growth within the sterilized flasks, it
would have access to the broth, whereas the microorganisms
would not. He correctly predicted that sterilized broth in his
swan-neck flasks would remain sterile as long as the swan
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However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would
be introduced, contaminating the flasks and allowing
microbial growth within the broth.
Pasteur's set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory
of spontaneous generation and also articulated ("Life only
comes from life")
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These two scientists showed that both macro-organisms
(Redi) and micro-organisms (Pasteur) could only arise from
pre-existing
organisms, disproving the theory of spontaneous generation.
But what about the first ever cell? Unless we believe that life
is eternal, with no beginning and no end, there had to be a
first cell. It could not have come from a pre-existing cell
because it was the first.
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3. Eternity of life
In this theory of life, there is no beginning and no end to life
on Earth and so life neither needs special creation nor does it
need to be
generated from non-living matter. Supporters of this theory
believe that life is an inherent property of the Universe and it
has always
existed as has the Universe.
At the time when such theories were being propounded,
many eminent scientists including Albert Einstein - believed
that the
Universe was unchanging. They reasoned that 'if life is found
today in an unchanging Universe, then it must always have
been there'.
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4. Cosmozoan theory, Panspermia or Spore broth
theory
According to Cosmozoan theory life has reached this planet
Earth from other cosmological structures, such as meteorites,
in the form of highly resistant spores. This theory was
proposed by Richter (1865).
According to this theory, 'protoplasm' reached the earth in
the form of spores or germs or other simple particles from
some unknown part of the universe with the cosmic dust, and
subsequently evolved into various forms of life.
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A meteorite fall to Earth

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Helmholz (1884) speculated that 'protoplasm' in some form reached the
earth with falling meteorites.
4. Biochemical origin
The current ideas we have about how life may have evolved on Earth as a
result of biochemical reactions ( abiogenesis) owe much to two biologists.
Aleksandr Oparin, a Russian biologist who first put forward his ideas in 1924,
and John Haldane, an English biologist independently put forward almost
identical ideas in 1929 (before Heparin's book had been translated into
English). Both believed that organic molecules could be formed from
abiogenic materials in the presence of an external energy source such as
ultraviolet radiation and that the primitive atmosphere was reducing (having
very low amounts of free oxygen) and contained NH3 and water vapour,
among other gases.
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Both also suspected that the first life forms appeared in the warm,
primitive ocean and were heterotrophic rather than autotrophic.
They proposed that common gases in the early Earth atmosphere combined
to form simple organic chemicals, and these in turn combined to form more
complex molecules.
Then, the complex molecules became separated from the surrounding
medium, and acquired some of the characters of living organisms.
They became able to absorb nutrients, to grow, to divide (reproduce), and so
on.
Later Miller had apparently approved the Oparin-Haldane model by mixing
the basic elements to produce simple organic compounds, and then
combining these to produce the building blocks of proteins and nucleic acid.
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Autotrophs
Autotrophs form the basis for all food chains: they are the organisms which
create sugars, proteins, lipids, and other materials. The first organisms
appeared about 4 billion years ago were prokaryotes. It seems likely also
that they had RNA rather than DNA. It was assumed that they gave rise to
three distinct lines of evolution leading to:
. Archaebacteria prokaryotes including thermophilic sulphobacteria,
methanobacteria and halophilic bacteria
• Eubacteria - prokaryotes; ordinary bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green
bacteria and
sometimes known as blue-green algae)
• Eukaryotes - eventually evolving into protoctistans, fungi, plants, animals
(nearly all areaerobic)
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One great change that affected the evolution of early life forms was the shift
from the reducing atmosphere to an atmosphere containing oxygen. This
took place about 2.4 billion years ago.
The two major types of autotrophs are chemoautotrophs and
photoautotroph.

Chemoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs
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4.1.2. Theories of evolution
Lamarckism
Jean-Baptiste De Lamarck (1744 - 1829) was a great French naturalist. Lamarck
sought a naturalistic explanation for the diversity of modem organisms and the
animals seen in the fossil record. ' He proposed ‘the theory ofinheritance of
acquired characters’ in 1809.
He postulated:
A. New Needs: Changes in environment factors like light, temperature,
medium, food, air etc or migration leads to origin of new needs in living
organisms. To fulfil these new needs, living organisms have to exert
special efforts like changes in habits or behavior
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B. Use and disuse of organs: ' The new habits involve the greater use of
certain organs to meet new needs, and the disuse or lesser use of certain
other organs which are of no use in new conditions.
C. Inheritance of acquired characters: he believed that the favourable
acquired characters are inheritable and are transmitted to the offsprings so
that these are bom fit to face the changed environmental conditions and the
chances of their survival are increased
D. Speciation: Lamarck believed that in every generation, new characters
are acquired and transmitted to next generation, so that new characters
accumulate generation after generation. After a number of generations, a
new species is formed.
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Lamarck’s ideas of use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired traits
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Use and disuse In this part of his theory, Lamarck suggests that when a
structure or process is continually used, that structure or process will
become enlarged or more developed Conversely, any structure or process
that is not used or is rarely used will become reduced in size or less
developed. The classic example he used to explain the concept of use and
disuse is the elongated neck of the giraffe. According to Lamarck, a given
giraffe could, over a lifetime of straining to reach high branches, develop an
elongated neck. However, Lamarck could not explain how this might happen.
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Lamarck believed that traits changed or acquired during an individual's
lifetime could be passed on to its offspring. Giraffes that had acquired long
necks would have offspring with long necks rather than the short necks their
parents were born with.
Lamarckian inheritance, has since been disproved by the discoveries of
genetics. Lamarck did believe that evolutionary change takes place gradually
of evolution and constantly.
1. Significance of Lamarckism
a) It was first comprehensive theory of biological evolution.
b) It nicely explains the existence of vestigial organs in animals due to their
continuous disuse. Vestigial organs are organs that are a part of the organism
that are no longer in use. That can be used to determine the relatedness of
different species. For example, the bone structures of the front flippers of a
whale contain bones of limbs that exist in mammals.
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c) It explains the development of strong jaw muscles and claws in the carnivores due
to their continued extra use.
d) It stimulated other biologists to look for the mechanism of organic mechanism.
Darwinism (Theory of natural selection)
Proposed by Charles Darwin (1809-1882 A.D.), an English naturalist. He went on a voyage
on H.M.S Beagle and explored South America, the Galapagos Islands and other islands. He
was highly influenced by essay entitled 'On the Tendency of varieties on Depart
Indefinitely from the original type by Alfred Russell Wallace and another essay 'Principle
of geology" written by Charles Lyell.
Some of Darwin's evidence came from a visit to the Galapagos Islands. These are a small
group of islands in the Pacific Ocean about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador in South
America. Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings and collected
specimens. In particular, Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands and
noted that there were many similarities between them, as well as obvious differences.
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He concluded that an 'ancestral finch' had colonized the islands from the
mainland and, in the absence of predators, were able to adapt to the
different conditions on the islands and, eventually, evolved into different
species . Some of the finches had, he suggested, evolved into insect eaters,
with pointed beaks. Others had evolved into seed eaters with beaks capable
of crushing the seeds.
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Darwin’s Theory of Finches on the Galapagos Islands

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Basic postulates of Darwinism
Geometric increase: All species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly
survive. However, the space and food supply is limited to support the number of
organisms that increase in a geometric ratio.
Struggle for existence: Since the number of individuals produced is more than the
number that can be supported, there is a competition between organisms.
Variation under nature: No two individuals of a species are exactly similar and they have
some differences. These differences are called variations and without evolution is not
possible. Variations give rise to new characters and heredity passes them on to the
next generation.
Natural selection or survival of the fittest:
Due to struggle for existence and useful heritable variations, only those individuals
survive which show high selective value and in the course of time they develop various
adaptive modifications to suit the changed conditions of life. Such selection was called
natural selection by Darwin.
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Origin of species: In the course of long periods of time the best fitted and suitable
individuals survived and adjust to the nature.
As environment is ever changing, further changes occur and thus new adaptations
appear in organisms. The later descendants after several generations become quite
distinct from their ancestors. On this way new species appear.
Neo-Darwinism theory
Charles Darwin knew very little of genetics. Mendel had not carried out his work on
inheritance at the time Darwin published his book on the Origin of Species. However, we
can now incorporate our knowledge of genes and gene action into the theory of natural
selection to give a better understanding of what drives evolution.
Genes determine features. But when we think about how a population might evolve into
a new species, we need to think not just in terms of the alleles each individual might
carry, but also in terms of all the alleles (all the genes) available in the population. We call
this the gene pool of the population.
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Postulates of Neo-Darwinism are:
1. Genetic variability
2. Natural selection
3. Reproductive Isolation
4.1.3. The evidence for evolution
4.1.3.1 Comparative anatomy
Comparative anatomy is one of the strongest forms of evidence for evolution. It looks at
the structural similarities of organisms and uses these similarities to determine their
possible evolutionary relationships. It assumes that organisms with similar anatomical
features are closely related evolutionarily, and that they probably share a common
ancestor. Some organisms have anatomical structures that are very similar in form, but
very different in function.
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We call such structures homologous structures. Because they are so similar, they
indicate an evolutionary relationship and a common ancestor of the species. Perhaps the
best known example of homologous structures is the forelimb of mammals. When
examined closely, the forelimbs of humans, whales, cats and bats are all very similar in
structure (Figure4.13)
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The homologous forelimbs of mammals.

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Each possesses the same number of bones, arranged in almost the same way while
they have different external features that function in different ways as :
• arm for manipulation in humans
• leg for running in cats
• flipper for swimming in whales
• wing for flying in bats
By comparing the anatomy of these limbs, scientists have determined that the basic
pattern (called a pentadactyl limb) must have evolved just once and that all organisms
with this kind of limb were descended from that original type, which they share a
common ancestor
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However, comparative anatomy needs to be used carefully as evidence for evolution. This
is because while sometimes organisms have structures that function in very similar ways,
morphologically and developmentally these structures are very different. We call these
analogous structures. Because they are so different structurally, even though they have
the same function, they cannot indicate that two species share a common ancestor.
Although, the wings of a bat, bird and mosquito all serve the same function, yet their
anatomies are very different. For example, the bird wing has bones inside and is covered
with feathers while the mosquito wing has neither of these.
They are analogous structures that have evolved separately.
4.1.3.2 Embryology
Comparative embryology studies the way in which the embryos of vertebrates develop
before they hatch or born. This development shows similarities which supports a
common ancestry.
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Similarities in development of embryos.

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For example early in development, all vertebrate embryos have gill slits and tails.
However, the ‘gill slits’ are not gills; they connect the throat to the outside, but in many
species they disappear later in the embryonic development. However, in fish and larval
amphibians they contribute to the development of gills
The embryonic tail does not develop into a tail in all species. In humans, it is reduced
during development to the coccyx, or tailbone. The more similar the patterns of
embryonic development, the more closely related species are assumed to be. The
similarity in the development of vertebrates also suggests a common ancestor.
4.1.3.3 Palaeontology (Paleontology)
The study of fossils is known as palaeontology. Fossils are formed when certain remains
of organisms get embedded in the soil or water and are preserved for many years. They
appear either as skeletal remains, footprints, moulds or intact structures as found in the
snow. By studying fossils, we are able to establish similarities between the organisms in
the present to its ancestor in the past. There can be many similarities that prove the
common origins between different closely related animals and the differences can be
studied to establish how they differ now and why.
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Fossils are very important evidence to prove the theory of evolution and common
ancestry. We can group fossils into two categories:
Category 1: The remains of dead animals or plants or the imprint left from the remains,
including:
• bones • teeth
• skin impressions • hair
• the hardened shell of an ancient invertebrate ,such as a trilobite or an ammonite
an impression of an animal or plant, even if the actual parts are missing
Category 2: Something that was made by the animal while it was living and that it has
hardened into stone since then; these are called trace fossils and include:
• footprints • burrows • coprolite (animal faeces)
Type I fossils can be the actual organism or part of an organism, like a piece of bone or
hair or feather as it actually was. For example, spider has been trapped, completely
unchanged, inside the amber for millions of years.
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Amber is fossilised resin from trees. This spider probably became stuck inside the sticky
resin and could not escape. As the amber became fossilised, the spider was protected
from micro-organisms and the air which would have led to its decomposition. In many
fossils like this, the soft parts of the body have been lost, but the exoskeleton is perfectly
preserved. In some cases, however, the entire body remains.
Dating fossils
Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers (strata) which help to deduce how the
organisms have changed over time. This is called stratigraphy. The oldest strata and
the oldest fossils are found in the lowest layers and more recent rocks and fossils in the
layers above them nearest to the surface.
The thickness of each stratum is a measure of the time during which that stratum was
formed.
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Some minerals in rocks and organic matter ( wood, bones, and shells) can contain
radioactive isotopes. The abundances of parent and daughter isotopes in a sample can be
measured and used to determine their age. This method is known as radiometric dating.
The amount of time it takes for half of the parent isotopes to decay into daughter
isotopes is known as the half-life of the radioactive isotope.
Fossil age can be determined using two ways;
1. absolute dating which determines the number of years that have elapsed since an
event occurred or the specific time when that event occurred.
2. relative dating determines the age by analysing rocks and structures placed into
chronological order, establishing the age of one thing as older as or younger than
another
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Carbon is found in different forms – mainly in the stable form of carbon-12
and the unstable form of carbon-14. Over time, carbon-14 decays and turns
into nitrogen. organism takes in both carbon-12 and carbon-14 from the
environment. Once the organism dies, the total carbon-14 content in the
organism slowly disappears. Scientists can determine how long ago an
organism died by measuring how much carbon-14 is left relative to the
carbon-12.
Carbon-14 has a half life of 5730 years, meaning that 5730 years after an
organism dies, half of its carbon-14 atoms have decayed to nitrogen.
Similarly, 11460 years after an organism dies, only one quarter of its original
carbon-14 atoms are still around.
potassium-40 decaying to argon has a half-life of 1.26 billion years and
beryllium-10 decaying to boron has a half-life of 1.52 million years.
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At time zero, the sample is composed entirely of the radioisotope and the
radioactive clock begins ticking. After one half-life, only 50% of the original
radioisotope remains. During each succeeding half-life, half of the remaining
radioisotope is converted to decay product (s).
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How do scientists actually date the rocks? To do this, we scientists use one of
two techniques:
. Radiocarbon dating, or
. Potassium-argon dating.
Both these techniques rely on the principle that radioactive atoms decay into
other atoms over time. Radioactive carbon atoms (C14) decay into nitrogen.
Radioactive potassium (K40) decay into argon atoms (A40). Each has what is
known as a half-life. During this period, half of the radioactive atoms decay.
So, starting with a certain number of radioactive potassium atoms, after one
half-life, 50% will still be radioactive. After a second half-life, 50% of this will
have decayed and 25% of the original number will still be radioactive
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4. 1 .3.4 Comparative biochemistry
Organisms that share very similar molecules and biochemical pathways are
closely related
evolutionarily. Chemicals that have been used in such analysis include DNA
protein.
Species that are closely related are believed to have the most similar DNA
and proteins, those that are distantly related are assumed to share fewer
similarities. For example, a comparison of DNA sequences shows that 98% of
our DNA is the same as chimpanzees which confirms that chimpanzees are
the closest relatives of humans.
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A phylogenetic (evolutionary) tree of some animals based on differences in DNA

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The haemoglobin molecule is similar in all animals that possess it, but there
are differences.
For example, the haemoglobin of the lamprey (a primitive fish-like animal) has
only one polypeptide chain, not four.
Most animals have haemoglobin with four chains, but the chains do vary.
Figure 4.22 shows the differences in the amino acid sequences of the a chains
of haemoglobin of the human and several other animals. The diagram (Figure
4.22) is presented to show how different animals may have diverged from the
evolutionary line that led to humans.
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The evolutionary relationships of some animals shown by differences in haemoglobin

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The molecules that are used to show evolutionary relationships are those that are
common to large numbers of organisms. But, clearly, haemoglobin analysis cannot be
used to include plants and algae in any phylogenetic tree.
4.1.4. Natural selection: Definition, Types & Examples
Natural selection is the 'driving force' behind evolution. It is the process that brings
about changes (over time) in populations that can, eventually, lead to different
populations of the same species to become different species. Those members of a
species which are best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce in
greater numbers than others that are less well adapted. They will pass on their
advantageous alleles to their offspring and, in successive generations, the frequency of
these alleles will increase in their gene pool. The advantageous types will, increase in
frequency in successive generations.
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natural selection can eventually lead to speciation (the formation of new species)
species is a group of similar organisms with a similar biochemistry, physiology and
evolutionary history that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
This explains why all humans are members of the same species, but belongs to a
different species from the chimpanzee.
So how can there be different types of natural selection? All types of natural selection
work in the same manner, but their influence on a population is different. The different
types of natural selection include:
• directional selection
• stabilising selection and
• disruptive selection
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1. Directional Selection Sometimes natural selection favours organisms at
one end of the bell curve. When individuals at one end of the curve have
higher fitness than the others, directional selection takes place.
Imagine a population of birds that live on an island. The island has many
large seeds with thick shells, but few small seeds. Birds with bigger beaks
would have more to eat than birds with smaller beaks. Birds with bigger
beaks would live longer and have more offspring. Over time, the average
size of beaks would get bigger. Natural selection would move in one
direction—toward larger beaks.
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Directional selection
If the environment changes, alleles that were previously advantageous may
become disadvantageous.
» For example, in a snowy environment the individuals in a species of
mammal may have white fur that camouflages them against the snow. This
gives them an advantage in escaping predators.
» If the climate changes so that snow no longer lies on the ground, then
animals with white fur may be more likely to be killed than animals with
brown fur. Those with brown fur are now most likely to reproduce and pass
on their alleles to the next generation.
» Over time, brown may become the most common fur colour in the
population. This is an example of directional selection or evolutionary
selection
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» Evolution can be defined as a long-term change in the characteristics of a
species, or in the frequency of particular alleles within the species.
2. Stabilizing Selection
In stabilizing selection, individuals with the average form of a trait have the highest
fitness. extreme forms of most traits confer lower fitness on the individuals. lizard in
which larger-than-average individuals might be more easily spotted, captured, and
eaten by predators. On the other hand, lizards that are smaller than average might not
be able to run fast enough to escape.
This predator easily captured the large, visible lizards and the small, slower lizards. Thus,
selection against these extreme body types reduced the size range of the lizards.
Stabilizing selection is the most common kind of selection. It operates on most traits and
results in very similar morphology between most members of a species.
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3.Disruptive Selection
In some situations, selection acts to eliminate the intermediate type, resulting in the
two more extreme phenotypes becoming more common in the population. This type of
selection is called disruptive selection:
A clear example is the different beak sizes of the African black-bellied seed cracker finch
Pyrenestes ostrinus. Populations of these birds contain individuals with large and small
beaks but very few individuals with intermediate-sized beaks.
the available seeds fall into two size categories: large and small.
Only large-beaked birds, can open the tough shells of large seeds, whereas birds with
the smallest beaks, are more adept at handling small seeds. Birds with intermediate-
sized beaks are at a disadvantage with both seed types: unable to open large seeds and
too clumsy to process small seeds. Consequently, selection acts to eliminate the
intermediate phenotypes, in effect partitioning the population into two phenotypically
distinct groups.
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Antibiotic resistance - a modem example of natural selection in action
The spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a simple example of
evolutionary adaptation by natural selection. Bacteria can become resistant
to antibiotics through mutations that alter the cellular targets of antibiotics.
The acquisition of resistance is a very rare event; for example, resistance
mutations usually occur in less than 1 in a million bacteria.
However, resistant bacteria can continue to grow and reproduce under
antibiotic treatments that effectively paralyse or kill their antibiotic
susceptible neighbours. this is Darwinian natural selection in its simplest
form
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Pattern of evolution
Divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution
Evolution over time can follow several different patterns. Factors such as environment
and predation pressures can have different effects on the ways in which species exposed
to evolve. There are three main types of evolution: divergent, convergent, and parallel
evolution
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Divergent Evolution
When people hear the word "evolution," they most commonly think
of divergent evolution, the evolutionary pattern in which two species
gradually become increasingly different.
This type of evolution often occurs when closely related species
diversify to new habitats. On a large scale, divergent evolution is
responsible for the creation of the current diversity of life on earth
from the first living cells. On a smaller scale, it is responsible for the
evolution of humans and apes from a common primate ancestor.
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Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution takes place when species of different ancestry
begin to share analogous traits because of a shared environment or
other selection pressure. For example, whales and fish have some
similar characteristics since both had to evolve methods of moving
through the same medium: water
Parallel Evolution
Parallel evolution occurs when two species evolve independently of
each other, maintaining the same level of similarity.
Parallel evolution usually occurs between unrelated species that do
not occupy the same or similar niches in a given habitat.
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Types of speciation
Natural selection provides a mechanism by which new species can
arise. But, at what point can these populations be considered as
distinct species?.
If two populations become so different, individuals from these
different populations cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring,
then we must think of them as different species. There are a number
of ways in which this can occur. The two main ways are:
• Allopatric speciation and
• Sympatric speciation.
As long as two populations are able to interbreed, they are unlikely to
evolve into distinct species.
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They must somehow go through a period when they are prevented
from interbreeding.
Both allopatric and sympatric speciation involves isolating mechanisms
that prevent different populations from interbreeding for a period of
time.
During this period, mutations that arise in one population cannot be
passed to the other. As a result of this, and the different selection
pressures in different environments, genetic differences between the
two populations increase. Eventually, the two populations will
become so different that they will be unable to interbreed or they are
‘reproductively isolated’
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The difference between Allopatric and Sympatric speciation

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Why is polyploidy important in plant evolution?
Polyploid cells have many sets of chromosomes per cell - sometimes four
sets, eight sets or more. Some human liver cells have 92 chromosomes
per cell – they are tetraploid and have four sets of chromosomes per cell.
Polyploidy has been important in plant evolution because it has allowed
infertile hybrids to become fertile. When different species form hybrids,
very often the hybrid cannot produce offspring because
all the chromosomes cannot form bivalents (homologous pairs) in
meiosis. So, they cannot form sex cells and cannot reproduce. If the
chromosome number were to double, then all chromosomes would be
able to form homologous pairs. Meiosis and sex-cell formation can take
place and the hybrid is now fertile.
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A new species forms when one portion of a population can no longer
breed and produce fertile offspring with the rest of the population. That
is, the two separate groups no longer share a gene pool, and each begins
to follow its own, independent evolutionary path. Two parts of a
population can become reproductively isolated. Any interruption in
courtship, fertilization, embryo formation, or offspring development can
be a reproductive barrier.
Reproductive isolating mechanisms fall into two major categories:
1. prezygotic reproductive barriers act before fertilization to prevent
individuals of different species or populations from mating.
2. postzygotic reproductive barriers act after fertilization to prevent the
development of viable offspring, or to reduce the offsprings ’fertility.
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Reproductive Isolation
Prezygotic barriers prevent fertilization
Mechanisms of prezygotic reproductive isolation affect the ability of
two species to combine gametes and form a zygote. These
reproductive barriers include the following:
Ecological (or habitat) isolation: A difference in habitat preference can
separate two populations in the same geographic area. For example,
one species of ladybird beetle eats one type of plant, while a closely
related species eats a different plant. The two species never occur
on the same host plant, although they interbreed freely in the
laboratory. The different habitat preferences are the reproductive
barrier that keeps the gene pools of the two species separate.
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Temporal isolation: Two species that share a habitat will not mate if they
are active at different times of day or reach reproductive maturity at
different times of year.
Behavioural isolation: Behavioural differences may prevent two closely
related species from mating. The males of two species of tree frogs, for
instance, use distinct calls to attract mates. Female frogs choose males of
their own species based on the unique calls. Likewise, sexual selection in
many birds is based on intricate mating dances.
Mechanical isolation: In many animal species, male and female parts
fit together almost like a key in a lock.
Any change in the shape of the gamete-delivering or -receiving
structures may prevent groups from interbreeding. In plants, males and
females do not copulate, but mechanical barriers still apply
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Gametic isolation: If a sperm cannot fertilize an egg cell, then no
reproduction will occur. For example, many marine organisms, such as
sea urchins, simply release sperm and egg cells into the water. These
gametes display unique surface molecules that enable an egg to
recognize sperm of the same species. In the absence of a “match,”
fertilization will not occur, and the gene pools will remain separate.
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Postzygotic Barriers Prevent Viable or Fertile Offspring
Individuals of two different species may produce a hybrid zygote. Even then,
postzygotic reproductive isolation may keep the species separate by selecting against
the hybrid offspring, effectively preventing genetic exchange between the populations.
Collectively, these postzygotic barriers are sometimes called hybrid incompatibility.
Postzygotic reproductive barriers include the following:
Hybrid inviability: A hybrid embryo may die before reaching reproductive maturity,
typically because the genes of its parents are incompatible. Since the hybrid offspring
cannot reproduce, the gene pools of the parent species remain isolated from one
another.
Hybrid infertility (sterility): Some hybrids are infertile. A familiar example is the mule,
a hybrid offspring of a female horse and a male donkey. Mules are infertile because a
horse’s egg has one more chromosome than a donkey’s sperm cell. The animal can grow
and develop, but meiosis does not occur inthe mule’s germ cells because the
chromosomes are not homologous
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Hybrid breakdown: Some species produce hybrid offspring that are fertile.
When the hybrids reproduce, however, their offspring may have
abnormalities that reduce their fitness. Some second-generation hybrid
offspring of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Aedes mascarensis, for
example, have abnormal genitalia that make mating difficult. The strong
selective pressure against hybrid offspring limits gene flow between the
two mosquito species.
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4.1.5. Human evolution
Who are we and where have we come from?
You will hear people say ‘we evolved from monkeys’ or ‘we evolved from
apes’ or ‘we evolved from chimpanzees’. None of these statements are
accurate. There has been a Tine of evolution’ for millions of years that has
given rise to old world monkeys, new world monkeys, the great apes and
the different species of humans that have lived (Figure 4.27) But, we are
Homo sapiens and we are the latest of several humans to live on the planet.
We have two features in particular that distinguish us from other primates.
These are:
• A very large brain, and
• Bipedalism - the ability to truly walk on just two legs.
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There was a lot of debate amongst biologists as to which of these came first
and also about exactly how this ‘evolutionary tree’ (Figure 4.27) has given
rise to the various groups although they may disagree.
Over the details, they all agreed about the idea — a line evolution that has
branched to give the different groups of primates (including apes and
humans) that exist today has existed in not too distant past. Figure 4.28
shows the part of the evolutionary tree of humans and the living great
apes in more detail.
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Branching points in the evolutionary tree represent ancestors (Figure 4.28).
At these points it is assumed that an ancestral type became divided into at
least two populations which subsequently evolved along different lines. For
example, humans and chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor
that lived about 6 million years ago (Figure 4.28).
So far, we have talked about ‘humans’ rather than the one specific type of
human (ourselves - Homo sapiens) that now inhabits the planet.
There were other humans before us and, before them, what we might call
‘pre-humans’. However, all humans belong to the genus Homo.
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Figure 4.29 shows a timeline for the major hominin and hominid species
based on the currently available fossil evidence. Looking carefully at Figure
4.30, you begin to see the evolution of humans. Fossils of many of the
species along the early part of the timeline were found in Ethiopia. The
country is therefore, the ‘cradle of mankind’.
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’.
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Both Lucy and Ardy are important fossils in explaining the evolution of modem humans
and chimpanzees from a common ancestor.
Lucy was discovered by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in 1974 at Hadar, Ethiopia.
Lucy is a fossil dated at about 3.2 million years. She was an adult female of about 25
years and belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis. Her skeleton was about
40% complete, an unusually high proportion for a fossil skeleton. Her pelvis, femur (the
upper leg bone) and tibia show that she was bipedal (could walk upright on two legs)
(Figure 4.31).
However, there is also evidence that Lucy was partly arboreal (tree-dwelling). She was
about 107 cm (42") tall and about 28 kg (62 lbs) in weight. At the time she was
discovered, Lucy represented one of the oldest fossil hominins. The proportions of
her humerus and femur were mid-way between those of modem humans and
chimpanzees
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Lucy had a brain about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, so her discovery was able
to settle a debate amongst biologists at the time- which came first, large brain or
bipedalism?
Clearly bipedalism came before big brains.
The Ardi fossil (together with many other similar fossils) was first discovered in f 992,
in the Afar dessert in Ethiopia, but it was only in 2009 after many years’ analysis, that
research papers were finally published that gave Ardi a unique position in the human
evolution.
Ardi was 1.2 million years older than Lucy, was also female who belonged to the species
Ardipithecus ramidus. One significant feature about Ardi was that she was also
bipedal. At 4.4 million years old, Ardi is then earest fossil to the ‘common ancestor’ of
humans and chimpanzees that has so far been found. This finding finally proved that the
common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees could not have resembled a
chimpanzee, as chimpanzees are not truly bipedal. However, there was signs of being
adapted for both bipedal walking and arboreal life (Figure 4.32).
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A:skeleton of Ardipithecus, which lived 4.4 million years ago. B: Ardipithecus shows
signs of being adapted for both bipedal walking and arboreal life
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How brain size changed during human evolution?
During the course of human evolution, the brain has got bigger. Studies on comparative
anatomy of fossils revealed that the cranial capacity has increased with each new
hominid species evolved (Figure 4.33). However, the brain has increased in size as a
proportion of body mass. Species of Australopithecus have a brain that is between 0.7%
and 1.0% of their body mass, whereas modern humans have a brain size between 1.8%
and 2.3% of their body mass.
The brain of Homo sapiens uses 25% of the resting energy requirement, compared with
8% in the great apes.
A larger brain allows humans to:
• run faster and in a more upright posture
• plan in advance to avoid attack
• develop and use tools and weapons
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Brain size in different hominids

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These abilities clearly depend on other physical adaptations such as longer
legs, more nimble fingers and a straighter spine, but, without the larger
brain to co-ordinate the activities; the physical changes would not confer
the same advantage.
Are we still evolving?
Homo sapiens (modem humans) first appeared in Africa and have since
migrated to all other parts of the world. Figure 4.34 shows these migratory
patterns together with the time (thousands of years ago) when they took
place.
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As humans moved from Africa into different areas of the world, they
encountered different environments. Different selection pressures in the
different environments resulted in the different human populations
evolving along different lines.
For example, as humans encountered colder climates, body features that
gave a survival advantage to conserve heat were selected for. These
included:
• a shorter, squatter body shape; this reduces the surface-area-to-volume
ratio and so reduces the rate of heat loss by radiation
• an increased layer of adipose tissue under the skin to act as insulator.
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• Increased hairiness; this reduces heat loss by convection. Humans have
been evolving into different ‘races’ for thousands of years. The classification
of these races is difficult and there is disagreement about their exact nature.
4.1.6. Mutation
If the agent that caused the mutation cannot be identified then it is known
as a spontaneous mutation.
If the mutation can be identified then it is called an induced mutation.
Substances that cause mutations are radiation, x-ray, ultra-violet radiation,
nuclear radiation and certain chemicals. These agents can also be called
mutagenic agents or mutagens. There can be large structural changes
involving the whole chromosomes or parts of chromosomes, or changes that
involve only a single base. The changes involving only a single base are called
point mutations.
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Point mutation
There are several types of point mutation, in which one of the bases in the DNA
sequence of a gene is altered, usually by being copied wrongly when the DNA replicates.
The different point mutations are:
• substitution
• addition
• deletions
These mutations occur quite randomly when the DNA is replicating and each involves a
change to just one base, but the change to the gene can be dramatic and the result
can be that the protein the gene should code for is not made at all or a different protein
is made.
A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in DNA. This type of mutation is
usually less serious than a chromosomal alteration. An example of a point mutation is a
mutation that changes the codon UUU to the codon UCU.
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Description of point mutation

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Substitution
Guanine replaces thymine in this substitution. The triplet ATT has been
changed to ATG (no other triplet is affected). The original triplet, ATT, codes
for the amino acid isoleucine.
In a substitution, one base is changed to a different base. Substitutions
usually affect a single amino acid.
Sometimes they have no effect at all. For example, a mutation might change
one codon of mRNA from CCC to CCA. The codon would still call for the
amino acid proline. But changing CCC to ACC would replace proline with the
amino acid threonine.
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However, the new triplet, ATG, codes for methionine (see Figure 4.35). As a
result, a different protein will be synthesised, which may or may not be
significantly different from the original. One different amino acid in a
protein does not always make a functional change.
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If a substitution of just one base in the sixth triplet of the gene coding for
one of the four polypeptides in the haemoglobin molecule alters the triplet
from GAG to GTG.
This results in the amino acid valine replacing glutamate in the polypeptide
chain. The different haemoglobin molecule formed results in the condition
known as sickle-cell anaemia.
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Addition and deletion In a deletion mutation, a base is ‘missed out’ during
replication, whereas in additions, an extra base is added Both deletion and
additions are more significant mutations than substitutions. The reason for
this is that they do not just alter the triplet in which the mutation occurs.
Because there is one fewer or one extra base, the whole sequence after the
point of the mutation is altered.
We say that there has been a frameshift and these are frameshift
mutations. A totally different mRNA is produced (if one is produced at all)
and a non-functional protein or no protein at all. Sometimes, a whole triplet
is missed out or inserted. This will result in either one extra or one fewer
codon in the mRNA. In turn, this will lead to one extra or one fewer amino
acid in the polypeptide chain.
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Mutations
If the DNA in all the cells of an adult human body were lined up end
to end, it would stretch nearly 100 billion kilometers—60 times the dis-
tance from Earth to Jupiter. This DNA is the end result of thousands of
replications, beginning with the DNA in a fertilized egg. Organisms have
evolved many ways to protect their DNA from changes. In spite of these
mechanisms, however, changes in the DNA occasionally do occur. Any
change in the DNA sequence is called a mutation. Mutations can be
caused by errors in replication, transcription, cell division, or by external
agents.
Frameshift mutations result from the insertion or deletion of base pairs
A change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA is called a mutation.
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Frameshift Mutations
The term reading frame applies to the sequence of codons because they
are read from some specific starting point, as in this sentence: THE CAT ATE
THE RAT. If the letter C is deleted from this sentence and the reading frame
is shifted, we read THE ATA TET HER AT—something that doesn’t make
sense.
Frameshift mutations occur most often because one or more nucleotides is
either inserted or deleted from DNA. The result of a frameshift mutation
can be a completely non-functional protein because the sequence of
codons is altered.
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Point Mutations
Point mutations involve a change in a single nucleotide and therefore a change in a
specific codon. When one base is substituted for another, the results can be variable.
For example, ifUAC is changed to UAU, there is no noticeable effect, because both of
these codons code for tyrosine. Therefore, this is called a silent mutation. If UAC is
changed to UAG, however, the result could very well be a drastic one, because UAG is a
stop codon. If this substitution occurs early in the gene, the resulting protein may be too
short and may be unable to function. This is called a nonsense mutation. Finally, if UAC
is changed to CAC, then histidine is incorporated into the protein instead of tyro-
sine. A change in one amino acid does not necessarily affect the function of a protein,
but in this example the polarity of tyrosine and histidine differ. Therefore, this
substitution most likely will affect the final shape of the protein and its function. This is
called a missense mutation. The occurrence of valine instead of glutamate in the β chain
of haemoglobin results in sickle-cell disease (Fig. 25.15). The abnormal hemoglobin
stacks up inside ofcells and their sickle shape makes them clog small vessels.
Hemorrhaging leads to pain in internal organs and joints.
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