Session 1 Concepts

and uses of research

Session
Objectives
By the end of this session learners should be able to:
• Explain meaning research and define some key
concepts in research

• Describe the role and importance of research in

clinical medicine

• Discuss the characteristics of good research

 What is
Research?
• "searching closely”
• "Systematic inquiry or a quest for knowledge characterized by
disciplined inquiry”
• "The acquisition of information”
• "Reality-testing" or taking reasonable guesses and gathering
evidence to support them
• Is to carry out a diligent inquiry of a given phenomenon. This
implies an exhaustive examination or investigation of a
phenomenon following some logical sequence
• A search for new knowledge & understanding of the world
around us
• An organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem,
undertaken with the purpose of finding answers to it
 What is Research?
RESEARCH is the
systematic
collection
analysis and
interpretation of data
to answer a certain
question or solve a
problem
 Purpose of health
research
Health research serves two main
purposes:
basic research: to generate
new knowledge and
technologies to deal with
unresolved health problems/
learning problems and

applied research: to identify

priority problems and to design
 Purpose of
Research
Discover new knowledge:
Involves:
 Discovery of new facts/information
 Their correct interpretation
 Their practical application
Describe a phenomenon – accurate
identification eg:
Size, shape, age, weight, colour, change over
time etc
 Provides knowledge for discovery above
Enable prediction:
Prediction = Ability to estimate phenomenon A
given phenomenon B
 Purpose of
Research
Explain phenomena:
Involves:
 Accurate observation
 Accurate measurement of a given
phenomenon
In explanation one should be able
to:
 Describe the phenomenon
 Predict it and
 Observe facts
 What causes its occurrence with
certainty and accuracy
 Purpose of
Research
Enable development of
theory:
Involves formulating:
 Concepts
 Laws and
 Generalization about a given
phenomenon
Types of Research “Many”

Rapid evolution of concepts and public health

research approaches in
recent decades (WHO, 1990).These concepts
include;
 Operations/ operational research
 Health services research
 Health management research
 Applied research
 Decision-linked research
 Health systems research
 Implementation research
 Types of Research “Many”
Biomedical Research: Clinical Research
Individual or  Biological processes  Efficiency of preventive,
Sub-individual  Body structure and diagnostic and therapeutic
function procedures – e.g. drug
 Pathological efficacy, clinical trials, side
effects, diagnostic tools,
mechanisms etc
 Natural history of diseases

Epidemiological Health systems research

Population - Research  Policy Research
Public Health  Frequency,  Operations research
Research distribution, and  Implementation research
causes of disease or
Basic Classification of Health
Research
 Two major categories:
Epidemiological research, and
Public health research
 Epidemiological Research
Biomedical and
Clinical
 Both is on the individual
 Biomedical focuses on how the body works and
looks into the biological processes, structures,
functions and mechanisms within an organism,
clinical research, on the other hand, focuses on
the response of the body to various preventive,
diagnostic and therapeutic interventions (for
 Basic Classification of Health
Research
 Public Health Research
 Focuses on groups of people (populations)
 Two main components:
Epidemiological research, and
Health systems research
 Epidemiological research, when applied in the
public health context, considers the frequency,
distribution and causes of ill-health
 Health systems research focuses on the organised
response to health problems and disease. It
considers the functioning of the health system,
the costs and quality of the services provided,
utilisation of services provided and the distribution
 Basic Classification of Health
Research
Health Professional Education

 Focuses and gives priority on the following

categories:

 creating an enabling environment with sufficient

resources and relevant training

 enhancing student learning; and

 identifying and evaluating strategies to improve

What are we saying about
health research?

We conduct research in clinical medicine in

order to achieve the following:

essential for finding new and better ways to

address clinical gaps
to provide support for innovation in health
issues
to understand better the determinates of
health problems
examine the effectiveness and impact of
health interventions
What are we saying about
health research?
Research that informs, influences and
has the potential to
improve health care outcomes
Research on higher degree students
and early career researchers to
achieve excellence in health
professional development

Research themes may include several

aspects – Class to brainstorm

What are we saying about
health research?
We conduct research clinical medicine in order
to achieve the following:
educational research is essential for finding
new and better ways to educate health
professionals
to provide support for innovation in health
professions education
to understand better learning, innovative
Learning environments and assessment &
evaluation
examine the effectiveness of curricula
interventions
What are we saying about
health research?
Research that informs, influences and has the
potential to improve
health care outcomes
research that informs, influences and improves
teaching and
learning
research on higher degree students and early
career researchers to achieve excellence in
educational research
Research Themes may include
 Inter professional education
 Clinical reasoning
 Cultural competence
 Patient safety
 Characteristics of
Good
Research
 Has a comprehensive statement and justification of
the research problem;
 Has clearly stated objectives and research questions
 Measures what it sought to from the onset
 Utilizes an intensive review of relevant literature
 Clearly and systematically explains the methodology
utilized
 Offers plausible interpretations and explanations of
the results
 Draws valid evidence-based conclusion deduced from
the research results
 Has a clearly stated and relevant purpose
 Examines the implications of the evidence adduced
 Theor
y
This is the starting point of
research process
By defn.:
A set of interrelated concepts,
definitions and
propositions
That presents a systematic view
of phenomena
By specifying relations among
variables
 Hypothes
is
Defn.:
Proposition, condition or principle
which is
assumed
In order to test its agreement with
facts which are known or may be
determined
Essentially a limited facet of a
theory
Often takes the form of relationships
 Operationalising
Variables
Translation of concepts into
variables ie attributes in which
relevant objects differ
Essentially – assigning units of
measure to
constituent concepts
Eg Level of Knowledge based on
scores to a set of
ten knowledge questions
Low knowledge = 0-3

 Basic terms in

research
Population: Refers to the entire group of
individuals, events or
objects having a common observable
characteristic

Sample/sampling: Is a smaller group that is

obtained from the accessible population to
represent the entire population

Variable: Is a measure characteristic that

assumes different values among the subjects

Data: Refers to all the information gathered

by the researcher

Statistic: An index which is descriptive of the

 Basic terms in research(contd)
 Objectives: Refers to any desired end or condition

 Literature review: Refers to locating, reading and evaluating

reports of previous studies

 Research problem: the ‘gap’ or ‘discrepancy’ between

• what is and what should be

 Problem statement: Is a specific statement that clearly

conveys the scope, magnitude and purpose of the research study
 Setting up a research
design
Two basic types of research:
Experimental:
 Aspects of the setting manipulated
 Either in the lab or field
 Effects of this manipulation observed on
experiment subjects
 Control group – a must
Survey/observational:
 No manipulation
 Observations on natural setting
 Collecting
data
Tools:
Interviews
Questionnair
es
Observation
s
Measuremen
ts etc
 Data
analysis
Univariate analysis:
Single variable - %, proportions, mean etc
Bivariate:
Connection between two variables in terms
of:
 Relationship
 Differences
Multivariate analysis:
Connection among >2 variables in terms of:
 Relationship
 Differences
NB. Distinction between relationships
and differences is
not always clear-cut eg.
boys/girls/gender/violence
 Results/
Findings
Results- from quantitative data and feeds
back to the theory
that prompted it to either:
Confirm it or
Refute it
NB: Refutation is as important as
confirmation
Future research to deal with ramifications
of the theory
Findings- from qualitative data
 Causalit
y
A major preoccupation among
researchers
Essentially: Establish cause and effect
Of considerable practical significance:
Manipulate cause to produce effect
Terms:
Independent variable – has impact on
dependent variable
Dependent variable – deemed to be
effect of independent variable
 Causality
(contd)
Word of caution:
Saying that X causesY does not suggest
thatY is totally affected by X:
 You don’t necessarily contract lung cancer if you
smoke
 Diseases afflicting smokers also afflict non-smokers
“Cause” should be understood to mean
that variations in X influence variations
inY.
That is, those who smoke more are more
likely to get the disease than those who
smoke less
Hence there is an association between
X andY
ASANTE