REPRODUCTION

IGCSE BIOLOGY
  Reproduction is the process of making

more of the same kind of organism.

 There are two types of reproduction:

REPRODUCTI
ON  Asexual reproduction

 Sexual reproduction
  Asexual reproduction is a process
resulting in the production of
genetically identical offspring from
one parent.
Asexual
reproduction
  In asexual reproduction:

 Only one parent

Asexual
reproduction  Offspring genetically identical to

parent
 Asexual
reproduction
 Advantages Disadvantages

Faster reproduction No genetic diversity

Asexual Consistent offspring Vulnerable to disease

reproduction Energy efficient

No need for pollination

(for crops)
  Sexual reproduction is a process

involving the fusion of the nuclei of

Sexual two gametes to form a zygote and

reproduction the production of offspring that are

genetically different from each other.

  Fertilisation is the fusion of
the nuclei of gametes.

Fertilisation
  The nuclei of gametes are haploid
and the nucleus of a zygote is diploid.

Haploid &
Diploid
 Advantages Disadvantages

Increased genetic Requires the fusion of

Sexual diversity two gametes

reproduction
Less vulnerable to Slower process
disease
 Sexual
reproduction
in Plants
 Structure Function

Sepal Protects the unopened flower

Petal Brightly coloured in insect-pollinated

flowers to attract insects

Anther Contains pollen (the male sex cells)

Functions of Filament Supports the anther

Flower parts Stigma The sticky surface that catches pollen

Style Links stigma to ovary

Ovary Produces ovum (the female sex cell)

Ovule Found inside the ovary and contains

the female sex cells
  Pollination is the transfer of pollen

grains from an anther to a stigma.

Pollination
  This transfer process may occur with
the help of:

 Insects

Pollination

 Wind
 Insect-
pollinated
Flowers
 Wind-
pollinated
flowers
  Self-pollination is the transfer of

pollen grains from the anther of a

Self-
flower to the stigma of the same
pollination
flower or a different flower on the

same plant
  Cross-pollination is the transfer of

Cross- pollen grains from the anther of a

pollination flower to the stigma of a flower on a

different plant of the same species.

  Self-pollination reduces genetic variation.

 Self-pollination limits the adaptability of

offspring to changing environmental

Effects of conditions.

Self- &  Cross-pollination increases genetic variation.

Cross-
pollination  However, cross-pollination depends on

pollinators.

 Wind-pollinated plants are not affected by the

absence of pollinators.
  Fertilisation occurs when a pollen
nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an
ovule.

Fertilisation
Fertilisation
Fertilisation
  The beginning of seed growth is
referred to as germination.

Factors
affecting
Seed
Germination
  For successful germination, three factors are
essential:

 Water – causes seed to expand and

activates enzymes within embryo to
Factors initiate growth.
affecting  Oxygen – for respiration to release energy
Seed for growth.
Germination  Suitable temperature – increases rate of
germination. As the enzyme – catalysed
reactions are temperature-dependent, up
to an optimum.
Investigatin
g
Germination
Investigatin
g
Germination
  The process of human reproduction involves

the fusion of the male gamete (sperm) with

the female gamete (egg)

Sexual
Reproductio
n in Humans
 The Male
Reproductiv
e System
 Structure Function
Testes Produces sperm (male gamete) and
testosterone (hormone)

Scrotum Holds the testes outside of the body to

keep it colder than body temperature

The Male Sperm duct Tube that carries sperm from the testes
to the urethra

Reproductiv Prostate gland Secretes nutritive fluid which combines

e System with sperm to form semen

Urethra Tube which allows excretion of urine and

semen from body.

Penis Passes urine out of the body & allows

semen to pass into the vagina of a
woman (during sexual intercourse)
The Female
Reproductiv
e System
The Female
Reproductiv
e System
 Structure

Ovaries Where egg cells (female gametes) are

developed

Oviducts Place where fertilization takes place.

Connects the ovary to the uterus, lined
The Female with ciliated cells to push the released

Reproductiv ovum down it

e System Uterus Place where the fetus develops

Cervix Ring of muscle that keeps the fetus in

place during pregnancy

Vagina Entry point for the penis

  Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a

male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete

(egg cell).

Fertilisation
 Adaptive
Features of
Sperm
 Adaptive
Features of
Egg
 Sperm (Male Gamete) Egg Cell
(Female
Gamete)
Size Very small Large

Comparing Structure Head region & Flagellum Round cell with

Male & jelly coating

Female Motility Can move Can’t move on its

Gametes own

Numbers Many (produced in Only one

millions per day) released each
month
Fertilisation
  In early development, the zygote forms an

embryo which is a ball of cells that implants

into the lining of uterus

Implantation
Pregnancy
  Develops during pregnancy and attaches to the
uterine wall
 Acts as an interface between the mother’s blood
Placenta supply and the developing fetus
 Provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus
 Removes waste products from the fetus
 Produces hormones that help maintain the
pregnancy
 Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the
placenta and affect the fetus.
Umbilical  Connects the developing fetus to the placenta
Cord  Provides the fetus with oxygen and nutrients from
the mother’s blood via the placenta
 Removes waste products from the fetus and
returns them to the mother’s blood via the
placenta
Amniotic  Surrounds and protects the developing fetus
Sac  Contains amniotic fluid, which cushions and
supports the fetus.
 Helps regulate the temperature around the fetus.
Amniotic
fluid  Cushions and protects the developing fetus
 Helps the fetus move and develop properly
 Helps regulate the temperature around the fetus
  Puberty is the period when the
Sexual
Hormones in body undergoes changes as
Humans progresses into adulthood.
  There are two main hormones responsible for

Sexual the development and regulation of secondary

sexual characteristics during puberty.
Hormones in
 In males – Testosterone
Humans
 In females – Oestrogen
  Growth of penis and testes
 Growth of facial and body hair
Testosterone  Muscles develop
in males  Voice deepens
 Testes start to produce sperm
  Breasts develops

 Body hair grows

Oestrogen in
females  Menstrual cycle begins

 Hips get wider

  The ovaries release an ovum every 28 days

 Uterus lining thickens in preparation for embryo

The implantation

Menstrual  If ovum is not fertilized, uterus lining breaks down

Cycle  The unfertilized egg cell, together with the old

uterus lining are passed out of the vagina.

 This is known as menstruation or a ‘period’.

 The
Menstrual
Cycle
 The
Menstrual
Cycle
  The menstrual cycle and pregnancy are

controlled by 4 main hormones:

Sexual  Oestrogen
Hormones in  Progesterone
Humans
 FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone

 LH – Luteinizing hormone
  Oestrogen

 Produced by the ovaries (during the

menstrual cycle)

 Produced by the placenta during pregnancy

Sexual  Stimulates the growth of the uterus lining,
Hormones in making it thicker
Humans  Causes the follicle (containing the egg) to
mature

 Stimulates LH production

 Decreases FSH production

  Produced by the ovaries (during the menstrual

cycle)

 Produced by the placenta during pregnancy

 Helps maintain the thick uterus lining during the

Progesteron menstrual cycle and during pregnancy
e
 Decreases FSH production

 If egg is not fertilized, the progesterone level

drops, causing the uterine lining to break down

(menstruation/’period’)
  Produced by the pituitary gland

 Causes a single follicle (which contains

an egg cell) in the ovary to develop and

FSH
mature

 Also stimulates the ovaries to start

releasing estrogen
  Produced by the pituitary gland (which

gets stimulated when oestrogen levels

have reached their peak)

LH  Stimulates ovulation (triggers an egg to

be released)

 Also stimulates progesterone production

in the ovaries.
The Menstrual Cycle

Oestrogen &
Progesterone
FSH & LH
 The
Menstrual
Cycle
 The
Menstrual
Cycle
 The
Menstrual
Cycle
  A sexually transmitted infection (STI)

is an infection that is transmitted

Sexual
Transmitted through sexual contact.
Infections  Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

is a pathogen that causes an STI.

  HIV attacks and weakens the immune

system by reducing the number of

functioning lymphocytes and decreasing

HIV the body’s ability to produce antibodies

to fight off infection, leaving the body

more vulnerable to other infections and

diseases.
  An HIV infection may lead to AIDS.

 AIDS makes an individual highly

vulnerable to other pathogens as

AIDS
their white blood cells are unable to

fight infection, potentially resulting in

death.
  Unprotected sexual intercourse

 Sharing needles with an infected person

Methods of  Blood transfusions with infected blood

HIV
transmission  From mother to fetus through the

placenta and

 Mother to baby via breastfeeding

  Limiting the number of sexual partners an
individual has
 Using condoms
Controlling  Getting tested if unprotected sex or sex with
spread of multiple partners has occurred

STIs  Raising awareness through education programmes

 Abstinence from s3exual intercourse
 Using sterilized needles instead of sharing
‘’Staying chaste is
a great asset’’
Thank You