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Chapter 4

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16 views

Chapter 4

Uploaded by

shikaku.88hokori
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 4: Energy from the nucleus

What holds a nuclide together


What holds a nuclide together?

The strong nuclear force acts to


hold nucleons together against the
force of electrostatic repulsion.

Gravitational force is negligible.


Four fundamental forces
Stability of nuclides

All nuclides, except hydrogen-1, comprise of protons


and neutrons.

The neutrons reduce the effect of the electrostatic force


of repulsion between protons.

Within a nucleus the strong nuclear force overcomes the


electrostatic force.

When the nuclear force is sufficiently strong, the nuclide


is stable. Otherwise the nuclide is unstable and will emit
radiation: alpha, beta and/or gamma rays.
Stability curve
Unstable nuclides are most
likely to decay by — decay.

This decay increases the


proton number, Z, by +1,
while reducing the neutron
number, N, by one.

The daughter nuclide will


then be on or closer to the
stability line.
Energy in nuclides

Binding energy is the energy that would be


needed to disassemble a nuclide into its
component nucleons.

Each nucleon, on its own, has a mass. But


when nucleons are brought together to form a
nuclide, the mass of the nuclide is less than
the sum of all the individual nucleons.
Energy in nuclides

The difference, between the sum of the


individual masses and the mass of the nuclide
into which they are combined is called the mass
defect.
The mass defect is a measure of the energy,
needed to bring all the parts of a nuclide or
atom together.

Einstein’s mass-energy equation is a quantitative


statement of this effect:
The electron-volt, eV

One electron-volt (eV) is an energy unit. It is


equivalent to the energy that an electron gains
when it is subjected to a one volt potential
difference.

Thus, 1 electron-volt is equivalent to 1.602 × 10 -19


J.
Mass (kg × 10-27) Mass (u)
Proton 1.673 1.0073
Neutron 1.675 1.0086
The energy equivalent of 1 u is 931.5 MeV
Total binding energy

The total energy needed


to hold a nuclide together
is called the nuclear
binding energy.
Binding energy
Fusion

Fusion is the coming together of two


nuclides to form a new nuclide with greater
atomic number.

The new, composite nuclide is more stable


because its binding energy per nucleon is
greater.

Fusion is favoured for light nuclides (Z < 56)


Fission

Fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus (Z > 56)


into fragments with lower atomic numbers.

The new nuclei, called fission fragments, are


more stable than the original nuclide because
their binding energies per nucleon are greater.

Fission is favoured for heavy nuclides (Z > 56).


Fission

Fission will occur when a neutron is


absorbed into uranium and plutonium
nuclides causes them to split into two,
usually unequal, fragments.

Neutrons are released and can be


controlled (to sustain) or deliberately
uncontrolled (to magnify) the original effect.
Nuclear energy: fission

(a) A slow neutron causes


a uranium-235 nucleus to
split, releasing three fast
neutrons.

(b) A chain reaction


occurs, if, say, two of the
released neutrons cause
further nuclear fission in
other uranium nuclei. Vast
amounts of energy can be
released.
Liquid drop model of fission
Mass defect in fission

In nuclear fission of uranium-235, the total


mass before fission is greater than the total
mass after fission.

The mass difference (mass defect) is what is


converted into energy.

The large nuclides carry most of this energy


as kinetic energy.
Efficiency comparison
Thermal nuclear reactor
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGC)
Thermal nuclear generation
Fast breeder reactor

Use the fast neutrons produced during fission of


uranium-235.

These fast neutrons are captured by the 96-99% of


the nuclear fuel that is uranium-238.

Then they beta-decay through neptunium to


plutonium.

Plutonium is fissile, so this is then chemically


removed and used as the fuel for plutonium
reactors or in weapons.
Risks of using nuclear energy

Waste produced by power plants

Type of power station Capacity Waste

Nuclear power station 1000 MW 25 tonnes of radioactive


material

Millions of tonnes of
Coal-fired power station 1000 MW carbon dioxide and
Sulfur dioxide
Classification of radioactive waste

High level waste such as used fuel rods,


are highly radioactive, taking about 1000
years to return to the same radioactive
level as the uranium ore that was originally
used.

It must be stored in shielded containers to


prevent radiation and must also be cooled
to stop overheating.
Medium or intermediate level waste such
as other reactor components in the reactor
core like fuel containers, gauges, pipes.

This waste requires shielding but not


cooling.
Classification of radioactive waste

Low level waste such as that used in


protective clothing, or water from showers
and water from cleaning protective gear.

This waste can be released to the


environment after being diluted.
Nuclear weapons

Atomic bombs are an uncontrolled chain reaction


that occur when a critical mass of weapons grade
enriched uranium or plutonium is put together.

The first atomic bomb was tested in the New


Mexico desert in 1945.

The first bomb used in warfare was dropped on


the civilians of the Japanese city of Hiroshima
less than a month later.
Neutron radiation

Neutrons can be emitted spontaneously or as a


result of the bombardment of nuclei with energetic
particles.

These neutrons are uncharged and can penetrate


atoms and interact with other nuclei.
These interactions can cause them to emit α and β
particles and γ-rays.

The recoil nuclei or the charged particles emitted by


the nuclei are very heavily ionising and so
biologically damaging.
Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process in which two nuclides


come together to form a larger nuclide with a lower
binding energy per nucleon.

In the process, energy becomes available.

This can occur for elements up to atomic number 56


(iron).

Making new nuclides by fusion requires enormous


energy.
Nucleosynthesis

Fusion of two protons


The process of forming heaver nucleotides by fusion
is called nucleosynthesis.

Positron decay ensures a


neutron is part of the new
nuclide.

1 1 2 0
1 H  H  H  e
1 1 1
Nucleosynthesis

Fusion of deuterium and a proton

2 1 3
1 H  H  He  
1 2
Nucleosynthesis

Fusion of Helium-3 with Helium-3

3 3 4 1
2 He  He  He  2 H  
2 2 1
Controlling fusion

Fusion reactions occur at temperatures of about 100


million degrees and at high density.

At high temperatures the electrons are stripped from


the atoms, leaving the nuclei exposed.

This creates a neutral plasma, that is exceedingly


difficult to contain.

Containment is achieved magnetically in a toroid


(a doughnut) shaped vessel.
Controlling fusion

The most promising fusion reaction is the


deuterium plus tritium reaction, or D-T reaction:

2 3 4 1
1 H  H  He  n
1 2 0
Power from fusion

Fusion reactions produce heat in the toroidal plasma


‘bottle’. The heat exchanger takes heat to produce
steam, which is used to generate electrical energy
Controlling fusion

The heat exchanger does not get the energy


produced by fusion directly.

It is therefore necessary to add an extra process to


capture the neutrons, and cause an appropriate
nuclear reaction that produces more tritium
1
1
0
6 4 3
n  Li  He  H
3 2 1 0 n  73 Li  42 He  31 H  01 n

It is these nuclides that then transfer their kinetic


energy to the heat exchanger.
Radiation the effect on cells
• Neutrons, X-rays, alpha-particles, beta-particles
and gamma-rays are ionising radiations.

• They interact with electrons, forming either ions


or free radicals.

• In living matter, these ions and free radicals can


cause chemical reactions in cells. Cell division
may also be affected.

• This can lead to genetic mutation and


uncontrolled cell division causing tumours.
The dose

The dose is the amount of energy, E, carried from the


source to a body of mass, m.

The absorbed dose, D, is the energy arriving at the


body per unit of mass:
Equivalent dose, H

The equivalent dose, H, is a measure of the


biological effects of different radiations. Each type of
ionising radiation is given a radiation weighting factor,
Ionising radiation Radiation weighting factor
(no units)
Beta particles 1
Gamma rays 1
Slow (thermal) 3
neutrons
Alpha particles 20
Equivalent dose, H

The equivalent dose is the product of both absorbed


dose and the radiation weighting factor:

Both gray and sievert refer to the energy per mass, but
each refers to a different thing: absorbed dose (Gy)
and equivalent dose (Sv).

H = D × WR (Unit: joule per kilogram; sievert, Sv)


Biological effects of radiation
Dose effects of radiation

Effects of a range of whole-body dose equivalents

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