Unit 1

Introduction
Measurements and Instrumentation

1
1. Introduction
2. Terminology
3. Unit
4. Dimension
5. Dimension equation
 E.S.U & E.M.U
6. MKS Unit System
7. Traceability
8. Calibration

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Metrology definition by:

International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) – as “Science

of Measurement” than further “Legal Metrology” as Part of
metrology relating to activities from statutory requirements and
concerns measurement, units, instruments & method performed by
competent bodies.

•International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) - as "the

science of measurement, embracing both experiment and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of
Science and Technology."

•Generally define as - science of measurement

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• Accuracy – the closeness
agreement between a test
result & accepted
reference value

• Bias – the difference

between the expectation
of the test result & an
accepted reference value

• Calibration – the process of adjusting the output

or indication on a measurement instrument to
agree with value of the applied standard, within a
specified accuracy
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• Certification – process performed by
a third party that confirms product,
process or service to the standard
(i.e ISO, HALAL etc.)

• Metrological confirmation – a set of

operations required to ensure that
measuring equip. complied the
requirement.
• Correction - is an action to rectify,
compensates for uncorrected result of
measurement.

• Drift – a slow change of a metrological

5 characteristic of instr.
Output Capacitor
• Error - difference between actual
behavior or measurement

• Measurement – set of operations

having the object of determining a
value of a quantity
• National standard – standard recognized by a national decision
(SIRIM, EU for UK)

• Nominal value – approximate value of instr. that provides a

guide to its use

• Precision – The Closeness agreement between independent test

result obtained under stipulated conditions
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• Repeatability – precision under repeatability conditions

• Reproducibility - ability of a test or experiment to be accurately

replicated, by someone else working independently (different
laboratories, operators &equipment)

Result by Ali Result by Abu

7
• Resolution – smallest changed of measured quantity

• Stability – ability of equip. to maintain constant its metrological

characteristic

Above: Grayscale images with pixel depths

of8 1-bit, 5-bits, and 8-bits.
• Traceability - the completeness of the information about every
step in a process chain.

• Uncertainty – lack of certainty, range of values within which the

true value of a measurand lies.

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Current standards and vocabulary
The precise definitions of the terms listed here can be
found in a number of international documents, including:
1. International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in
Metrology (VIM).
2. ISO 3534-1, Statistics - Vocabulary and symbols - Part 1.
Probability and general statistical terms
3. ISO 5725, Accuracy (trueness and precision) of measurement
methods and results.
4. ISO 8402, Quality management and quality assurance -
Vocabulary
5. ISO 10 012, Quality assurance requirements for measuring
equipment: Part 1: Metrological confirmation system for
measuring equipment.
6. EN 45 020, General terms and their definitions concerning
standardization and related activities
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• Unit is a set of size of physical quantities.
Different systems of units are based on
different choices of a set of fundamental units.
The most widely used system of units is the
International System of Units, or SI.

•The International System of units (SI unit) is a

form of metric sys. & divided in 3 classes
• base units
• derived units
• supplementary units

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•Principle of The International System
SI stands for Système International d’Unités, i.e. the
International System of Units. SI is the abbreviation used in all
languages to indicate this system.

The SI is constructed from seven base units, which are defined

in physical terms. By combining these units in accordance with
simple geometrical and physical laws, we can arrive at the
derived units .

In principle, the SI covers all application areas, although

certain units outside SI are so useful that they are accepted
for general use together with the SI.

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• Base Unit. There are seven SI base units. All other SI
units can be derived from these base units.

Quantity Base unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

• In addition to the SI units there are also a set of non-SI

units accepted for use with SI. As degree and minute for
plane angle, liter for volume, minute, hour and day for
time
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and ton for mass.
• derived Unit. Derived units are expressed algebraically in
terms of base units or other derived units. The symbols for
derived units are obtained by means of the mathematical
operations of multiplication and division.

Derived Quantity derived unit Symbol

Area Square metre m2
Volume Cubic metre m3
Speed metre per second m s-1
Acceleration metre per second square m s-2
Angular velocity Rad per second rad s-1
Angular acceleration Rad per second square rad s-2
Density Kilogram per cubic metre Kg m-3
magnetic field Ampere per metre A m-1
,intensity
)linear current density(
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• derived Unit.
Derived Quantity derived unit Symbol
Current density ampere per square metre A m-2
Moment of force Newton metre Nm
Electric field strength volt per metre V m1
permeability Henry per metre H m-1
permittivity farad per metre F m-1
specific heat capacity joule per kilogram kelvin J kg-1 K-1
amount-of-substance mol per cubic metre mol m-3
concentration
luminance candela per square metre cd m-2

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• derived Unit with special name and symbol.
Derived Quantity derived unit Special SI unit SI base unit
special name symbol
Frequency Hertz Hz - S-1
Force Newton N - Kg m S-2
Pressure / stress Pascal Pa N/m-2 Kg m-1 S-2
,energy, work Joule J Nm Kg m2 S-2
quantity of heat
power, radiant flux Watt W J/s Kg m2 S-3
,electric charge coulomb C - As
quantity of electricity
electric potential Volt V W/A Kg m2 S-3 A-1
difference,emf
electric capacitance Farad F C/V Kg-1 m-2 S4 A2
electric resistance Ohm - V/A Kg m2 S-3 A-2
electric conductance Siemens S A/V Kg-1 m-2 S3 A2

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• derived Unit with special name and symbol.
Derived Quantity derived unit Special SI unit SI base unit
special name symbol
Magnetic flux Weber Wb Vs Kg m2 S-2 A-1
Magnetic induction, Tesla T Wb/m2 Kg s-2 A-1
Magnetic Flux density
Inductance Henry H Wb/A Kg m2 s-2 A-2
Liminous flux lumen lm Cd sr m2·m-2·cd = cd
Illuminance lux Lx Lm/m2 m2·m-4·cd = m-2 cd
activity (of a Becquerel Bq - s-1
radionuclide)
absorbed dose, gray Gy J/kg m2 s-2
kerma,specific energy
dose equivalent sievert Sv J/kg m2 s-2
plane angle radian rad - m1·m-1 = 1
solid angle steradian sr - m2·m-2 = 1
catalytic activity katal kat - s-1 mol
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• SI derived units whose names and symbols include SI derived
units with special names and symbols
Derived Quantity derived unit symbol SI base unit
dynamic viscosity pascal second Pa s m-1 kg s-1
moment of force newton metre Nm m2 kg s-2
surface tension newton per metre N/m kg s-2
angular velocity radian per second rad/s m·m-1·s-1 = s-1
angular acceleration radian per second rad/s2 m·m-1·s-2 = s-2
squared
heat flux density, watt per square metre W/m2 kg s-3
irradiance
heat capacity, entropy joule per kelvin J/K m2 kg s-2 K-1
,specific heat capacity joule per kilogram J/(kg·K) m2 s-2 K-1
specific entropy kelvin
specific energy joule per kilogram J/kg m2 s-2

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• SI derived units whose names and symbols include SI derived
units with special names and symbols
Derived Quantity derived unit symbol SI base unit
thermal conductivity watt per metre W/(m·K) m kg s-3 K-1
kelvin
energy density joule per J/m3 m-1 kg s-2
cubic metre
electric field strength volt per metre V/m m kg s-3 A-1
electric charge density coulomb per C/m3 m-3 s A
cubic metre
electric flux density coulomb per C/m2 m-2 s A
square metre

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• Supplementary unit:
Units outside SI which are accepted
Quantity unit symbol Value in SI unit
time minute min min = 60 s 1
hour h h = 60 min = 3600 s 1
day d d = 24 h 1
plane angle degree ˚ rad )180/ ( = ˚1
minute ’ rad )800 10/ ( = ’)1/60( = ’1
second ’’ rad )000 648/ ( = ’’)1/60( = ’’1
nygrad gon gon = ( /200) rad 1
volume litre l, L l = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3 1
mass metric tonne t t = 103 kg 1
pressure in air, fluid bar bar bar = 105 Pa 1

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• SI prefix: An SI prefix is a prefix that can be applied to an SI unit
to form a decimal multiple or submultiples.
10n Prefix Symbol Long scale 10n Prefix Symbol Long scale
1024 yotta Y Quadrillion 10-1 Deci d Tenth
1021 zetta Z Trilliard 10-2 Centi c Hundredth
1018 exa E Trillion 10-3 Mili m Thousandth
1015 peta P Billiard 10-6 Micro µ Millionth
1012 Tera T Billion 10-9 Nano n Milliardth
109 Giga G Milliard 10-12 pico p Billionth

106 Mega M Million 10-15 Fento f Billiardth

103 Kilo k Thousand 10-18 Atto a Trillionth

102 hecto h Hundred 10-21 Zecto z Trilliardth

101 deca Da Ten 10-24 vocto y Quadrillionth

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 Guidelines for writing of SI unit names and symbols
1. Symbols are not capitalized, but the first letter of a symbol is
capitalized if :
a) the name of the unit comes from a person's name or
b) the symbol is the beginning of a sentence. Example:The
unit Kelvin is written as the symbol K.

2. Symbols must remain unchanged in the plural – no "s" is

added.

3. Symbols are never followed by full stops unless at the end of a

sentence.

4. Units combined by the multiplication of several units must be

written with a raised dot or a space. Example: N.m or N m
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Guidelines for writing of SI unit names and symbols
5. Units combined by the division of one unit with another must
be written with a slash or a negative exponent. Example: m/s or
m.s-1.

6. Combined units must only include one slash. The use of

parenthesis or negative exponents for complex combinations is
permitted. Example: m/s2 or m.s-2 but not m/s/s. Example:
m.kg/(s3.A) or m.kg.s-3.A-1 but neither m.kg/s3/A nor m.kg/s3.A

7. Symbols must be separated from the numerical value they

follow by a space. Example: 5 kg not 5kg

8. Unit symbols and unit names should not be mixed.

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 • parametre that describe some
relevant characteristic of an object.
Commonly dimensions describing the
size of an object: length, width, and
height.
Honey pot ant
•Dimensional Analysis - conceptual tool applied in physic, chemistry
& engineering to understand physical situations that involve physical
quantities and derive equation for relationship (correctness)
Length Time Mass Current

Length/time= Velocity/time= Acceleration x mass =

Velocity (m s-1) Acceleration (m s-2) Force (kg m s-2)

Current x time = Force/charge =

24 Electric charge (A s) Field strength (kg m s-3 A-1)
•Dimensional Analysis of
physical quantities - Unit system

•Uses symbol
M (mass), L (length), T (time) – Imperial Metric

known as mech. unit, Q

(electrical charge), I - or A CGS (centimeter, gram
& second
MKSA (metre, kilogram,
second & ampere

(current)
ESU (electrostatic unit) EMU (Electromagnetic Kennelly convention Sommerleid

•A derived unit of physical

unit) convention

quantity
Gaussian Unit

•Example 1:
Velocity = length/time; [v] = [L]/[T] = [LT-1]
Acceleration = velocity/time; [a] = [v]/[T] = [LT-2]
Force = mass x acceleration; [F] = [M]/[LT-2] = [MLT-2]
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 CGS unit system
Use centimetres, grams, and seconds as physical unit. However,
there are 2 variants for electric additions.
a)Electromagnetic unit – This system involve 4 unit quantity such
as permeability (µ-mu, unit F/m), mass, length and time.
b)Electrostatic unit – This system involve 4 unit quantity such as
permittivity (ε-epilson, unit H/m), mass, length and time.

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 Based on electrostatic unit
Electrostatic units (cgs-esu) are defined in a way that simplifies
the description of interactions between static electric charges;
there are no corresponding magnetic units in this system.

a) Charge
Based on Coulomb’s law, the force between two charge, Q1 and
Q2 is F = Q1Q2/εd2
where d = distance between two charge Q1 and Q2.
[MLT-2] = [Q2] / [ε.L2]
Dimension for charge, Q
[Q] = ( [MLT]-2 [ε.L2] )1/2
[Q] = ε 1/2M 1/2 L 3/2 T-1

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 Based on electrostatic unit
b) Current
The amount of electric current (measured in amperes) through
some surface, e.g., a section through a copper conductor, is
defined as the amount of electric charge (measured in
coulombs) flowing through that surface over time. If Q is the
amount of charge that passed through the surface in the time t,
then the average current I is:
[I] = [Q] / [T]
[I] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1] / [T]
[I] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-2]

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 Based on electrostatic unit
c) Potential Difference
A quantity related to the amount of energy that would be
required to move an object from one place to another against
various types of forces.
[E] = [W] / [Q]
[E] = [ML2T-2] / [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1]
[E] = [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]

d) Capacitance, C
Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge
stored
(or separated) for a given electric potential.
from C = Q/E
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[C] = [Q] / [E] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1] / [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]
Based on electrostatic unit
e) Resistance, R
Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an
object opposes an electric current through it.
[R] = [E] / [I]
[R] = [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1] / [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-2]
[R] = [ε-1L-1T]

f) Inductance, L
E [E] The SI units for inductance are
from L 
dI / dT [ I ] /[T ] webers per ampere. In honour of
Joseph Henry, the unit of
[ -1/2 M1/2 L1/2 T -1 ][T ] inductance has been given the

[ 1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T -2 ] name henry (H):
1H = 1Wb/A
30 L [ -1L-1T -2 ]
 Based on electromagnetic unit
Electromagnetic units (cgs-emu) are defined especially for the
description of phenomena associated with moving electric
charges, i.e., electric currents and magnetic poles.

a) Pole strength b)Magnetic Force, H

m1 m 2
Force f  [F ] [ MLT  2 ]
d 2 [H ]  
2 [ m] [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  1 1/ 2 ]
[ m ]
[ MLT  2 ]  [ H ] [ M 1/ 2 L 1/ 2T  1  1/ 2 ]
[  ][ L2 ]
[ m]  MLT  2 L2
[ m] [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  1 1/ 2 ]

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 Based on electromagnetic unit
c) Current
H = 2I / r
[-1/2M1/2L-1/2T-1] = [I] / [L]
[I] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]

d) Charge

Charge = current x time

[Q] = [I] [T]
[Q] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1][T]
[Q] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2]

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Based on electromagnetic unit
e) Potential voltage
Potential voltage = work/charge
[W ] [ ML2T  2 ]
[E]    1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
[Q ] [  M L ]
[ E ] [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2  1/ 2 ]

f) Capacitance, C
[Q ] [   1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2 ]
[C ]  
[ E ] [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2  1/ 2 ]
[C ] [ L 1T 2   1 ]

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Based on electromagnetic unit
g) Resistance, R
Potential voltage = work/charge
[ E ] [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2  1/ 2 ]
[ R]  
[ I ] [ M 1/ 2 L1/ 2T  1  1/ 2 ]
[ R ] [ LT  1 ]
h) Inductance, L
E [E]
[ L]  
dI / dt [ I ] /[T ]
[ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2  1/ 2 ][T ]

[ M 1/ 2 L1/ 2T  1  1/ 2 ]
[ L] [ L ]
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MKS unit system
Physical Quantity MKS unit CGS unit English
Length metre centimeter feet
Mass Kilogram gram pound
Time Second second second
Force newton dyne poundal
energy joule erg B.t.u.

a) Charge [Q] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2]

MKS unit for length, meter=100 x C.G.S. length unit
MKS unit for mass, kg=1000 x C.G.S. mass unit
MKS unit for time, second=1 C.G.S. length unit
Therefore MKS unit of charge/CGS unit of charge = [-1/2M1/2L1/2]
 1/ 2
 10 7   1000 
1/ 2
 100 
1/ 2
1
MKS Charge unit = 10-1 x C.G.S. e.m. unit charge
      10 MKS Charge unit = practical charge unit=1 coulomb
 1   1   1 
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MKS unit system
b)Current [I] = [-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]
MKS unit for current/CGS unit for current
 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1
 10 7
  1000   100   1 1 MKS Current unit = 10-1 x C.G.S
        10 current unit
 1   1   1   1 Practical current unit = 1 A

c)D.g.e [E] = [1/2M1/2L3/2T-2]

MKS unit for d.g.e/CGS unit for d.g.e
1/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2 2 MKS d.g.e unit = 108 x C.G.S
 10 7
  1000   100   1 d.g.e unit = 1 G volt
        108
 1   1   1   1

36
MKS unit system
d)Resistance [R] = [LT-1]
MKS unit for resistance/CGS unit for resistance
 1/ 2 1
 10 7
  100   1  MKS resistance unit = 109 x C.G.S
     10 9
resistance unit = 10 GΩ
 1   1  1 

e)Inductance [L] = [L]

MKS unit for inductance/CGS unit for inductance
MKS inductance unit = 108 x C.G.S
 107   100 
    10
9
inductance unit = 10 G volt
 1  1 

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Practical unit
Quantity Practical Symbol No. of e.m CGS unit in Defination
unit 0ne practical unit
Charge Coulomb Q 10-1 Q=It
Current Ampere I 10-1
Voltage Volt E 108 E=IR
Resistance Ohm R 109
Inductance Henry L 109 E=LdI/dt
Capacitance Farad C 10-9 Q=CE
power Watt P 1 watt = 107 energy/sec
Energy joule W or 1 joule = 107 erg
kWhour 1kWh = 3.6x103 erg

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 Traceability
A traceability chain, is an unbroken chain of comparisons, all
having stated uncertainties. This ensures that a measurement
result or the value of a standard is related to references at the
higher levels, ending at the primary standard.

An end user may obtain traceability to the highest international

level either directly from a National Metrology Institute or from
a secondary calibration laboratory. As a result of various mutual
recognition arrangements, traceability may be obtained from
laboratories outside the user’s own country.

39
BIPM (Bureau Definition
International des
Poids et Measures of the Unit

National Metrology Foreign National National Primary

Institutes or
designated national Primary Standards Standards
lab

Calibration lab, often Reference

accredited Uncertainty
Standards
increase
down the
Enterprises Industrial traceability
Standards chain

End Users Measurements

The national
metrological The traceability
infrastructure chain
 Calibration
A basic tool in ensuring the traceability of a measurement is the
calibration of a measuring instrument or reference material.
Calibration determines the performance characteristics of an
instrument or reference material. It is achieved by means of a direct
comparison against measurement standards or certified reference
materials. A calibration certificate is issued and, in most cases, a
sticker is attached to the calibrated instrument.
Three main reasons for having an instrument calibrated:
1. To ensure readings from the instrument are consistent
with other measurements.
2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be
trusted
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 Instrumentation & Electrical measurement

STANDARDS

42
 STANDARDS
1. Classification of Standards
2. Standards of Fundamental Quantities
 Mass, Time, Length, Absolute Ampere &
Temperature
3. Standards of Derived Quantities
 Voltage Standard (Josephson Junction, Weston
Cell)
4. Resistance Standards (Quantum Hall Effect)
5. Capacitive Standards
6. Inductive Standards

43
Standard
All measurement are based on comparison to some known quantity
or reference (standard).
standard Standards is a physical devices that have
stable characteristics and accurately defined.
Categorize to 4 type

• international standard
• primary standard
• secondary standard
• working standard

ISO 216 Paper Sizes

44
International Standard
■ Are devices designed and constructed to specifications of an
international forum.

■ Represents unit of measurement of various physical quantities to

the highest possible accuracy that is attainable by use of advanced
technique of production and measurement technology.
■ Maintained by the BIPM at Sevres, France.
– Ex: Kilogram (mass), wavelength of Kr86 (length) and cesium
clock (time).

■ These standards are not available to an ordinary user for

purpose of day-to-day comparisons and calibration.

45
Primary Standard
■ Devices maintained by organizations/ national laboratories in
different part of the world or countries

■ These devices represent the fundamental and derive quantities

and are calibrated independently by absolute measurement.

■ The main function of primary standard is to calibrate/check and

certify secondary reference standards.

■ These standards are not easily available to an ordinary user of

instruments for verification/calibration of working Standards.

46
Secondary Standard
■ Basic reference standards employed by industrial measurement
laboratories.

■ These standards maintained by concerned laboratory.

■ The main function - maintenance and periodic calibration of

secondary standards against primary standards of the national
standards laboratory/organization.

■ These standards are freely available to the ordinary user of

instruments for checking and calibrations of working standards.

47
Working Standard
■ High-accuracy devices that commercially available and are duly
checked and certified against either the primary or secondary
standards.

■ Example:- used for calibrating laboratory instrument e.g.

Lab in IVAT is used for carrying out comparison measurements or
for checking the quality (range of Products accuracy) for industrial
products.

48
Summarize of standard

49
Relationship between standard and accuracy

IS

PS

SS

WS

Diagram Traceability

50
5 fundamental properties
• All the fundamental unit are
defined in term of nature except
for kilogram.
kilogram
• Intrinsic/absolute standard can
be realize directly from their
definition rather than comparing
them to an object maintained at
a laboratory.

5 fundamental unit
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1. Mass
• It standard is the International Prototype
Kilogram (platinum-iridium cylinder)
• kept at the Inter. Bureau of Weights & Measure
in France
• kilogram was originally defined as the mass of
one litre of pure water at a temperature of 3.98⁰C
& standard atmospheric pressure

• since 1998, the SI system defines the unit to be equal to the mass
of the international prototype of the kilogram, made from alloy of
platinum & iridium of 39 mm height & diameter
• official copies of the prototype kilogram are made available as
national prototype (made in 1880s) & compared to Paris prototype
52
(“Le Grand Kilo”) roughly every 10 years
2. Time
• 60 seconds = 1 minute
• 3600 seconds = 1 hour
• 86.4 kilo seconds (86 400 seconds) = 1 day (in SI)
• the factor of 60 may have influenced by Babylonians based on their
60 in counting system. The hour defined by Egyptians in term of rotation
of earth as 1/24 of a mean of solar, 1/86400 of a mean solar day

• the second was defined in terms of the period of revolution of the

Earth around the sun for a particular moment

• the earth’s motion was describe in Newcomb’s Table of the sun

that provides a formula for the motion of the sun at the epoch
1900 based on astronomical observations made during the 18 & 19
centuries
53
2. Time
• the second thus defined as a fraction 1/35 556 925.9747 of the
tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time (ET)

• ET was defined as the measure of time that brings the observed

positions of the celestial bodies into accord with the Newtonian
dynamical theory of motion

• the second was rectified by 11th

General Conference on Weight &
Measures in 1960

54
2. Time
• 2 astronomers at United States Naval Observatory (USNO) &
National Physical Laboratory England determined the relationship
between the hyperfine transition freq of the caesium atom & the
ephemeris second

• in 1967 the 13th General Conference on

Weight & Measures defined the second of
atomic time in SI as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the caesium-133 atom (at 0 K)

55
3. Length
• The origins of the meter go back to at least the 18th century
Some suggested defining the meter as the length of a
pendulum having a half-period of one second;
others suggested defining the meter as one
ten-millionth of the length of the Earth's meridian
along a quadrant (one-fourth the circumference of the Earth).

• In 1791, soon after the French Revolution,

the French Academy of Sciences chose the
Meridian definition over the pendulum
definition because the force of gravity varies
slightly over the surface of the Earth, affecting
the period of the pendulum.
56
3. Length
• metric unit for length is meter, initially defined as 1/104 of the
earth quadrant.
introduced by Pierre-Simon Laplace

• In 1889 the first general conference on weights

And measures (CGPM) defined meter as length of
The International Prototype Meter, the distances
between two finely scribed lines of platinum-iridium
bar when subject to certain specified conditions.

• In 1960, it has been defined again for better accuracy by the

wavelength from the kripton-86 atom.
1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelength of kripton
57
3. Length
• to further reduce the uncertainty, in 1983 the CGPM replaced
previous definition by:
1 meter = distance of light that pass through vacum in
1/299,792,458 seconds.

• Yard is the imperial standard

for distance.
1 yard = 0.9144 m,
1 inch = 25.4 mm
It was widely used as the
industrial working standard.

58
Fig. Parallel conductors carrying
currents in same direction. The
current I' is moving in the B
field caused by the current I, so
it experiences a force
(F = I' L x B).

59
 • In 1948, ‘Absolute Ampere’ was
introduced. It was accurately realized using
an ampere-balance scheme, which was
measuring the force that exist between
conductor and coils.
• magnetic field from the left coil of balance arm produce a pulling force that directly
proportional to the flow of current and the number of turn on the coil.
• The force is balanced by the weight on the right side of balance arm. The force produced by
the electromagnetic field is due to the Movement coil electrons movement. 60
3. Absolute ampere
• but is in practice maintained via Ohm's Law
from the units of EMF and resistance, the volt
and the ohm, since the two latter can be tied to
Physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the
Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect respectively

• The physician found that, 1 Ampere is equal to the flow of 1

coulomb of electrons in one second at a node in electrical circuit.
[Q=It] The standard of ampere is later derived by the Ohm Law
after the revolution of Quantum Mechanic in 1962,
• Then 1 ampere is approximately equivalent to 6.24×1018
elementary charges .Precisely using the SI definitions for the
conventional values of the Josephson and Von Klitzing constants,
the ampere defined as exactly 6.241 509 629 152 65 61
x 1018

elementary charges per second.

5. Temperature
is a physical property of a system that underlies the
common notions of hot with high temperature and
cold with low temperature.

• It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

Particle of a substance. Thermodynamics principal
of microscopic motions of a single particle in
the system per degree of Freedom.

• Temperature standard is more complicated than the other

based unit since it must be specify over wide range of value. It
standard is International temperature scale of 1990 (ITS-90)

62
 PV nRT

A .
.
Gas

Absolute
zero
B
Pressure
gauge
This thermometer is not practical
Gas
for constructing a high precision
thermometer.-gravity effect &
0 Temperature (arbitrary unit) state change 63
5. Temperature
•ITS-90 is an equipment calibration standard for making
measurements on the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales.

• ITS–90 is an approximation of the thermodynamic temperature

scale
that facilitates the comparability and compatibility of temperature
measurements internationally

• ITS–90 offers defined calibration points ranging from 0.65 K to

approximately 1358 K (−272.5 °C to 1085 °C) and is subdivided into
multiple temperature ranges which overlap in some instances.

• ITS-90 is designed to represent the thermodynamic (absolute)

temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely
64
as
possible throughout its range.
5. Temperature
• Although the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute
zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is
impractical to use this definition at
temperatures that are very different from the
triple point of water.

• Accordingly, ITS–90 uses numerous defined

points, all of which are based on various
thermodynamic equilibrium states of fourteen
pure chemical elements and one is compound (water)

65
5. Temperature
• ITS–90 also draws a distinction between “freezing” and “melting”
points. Only gallium is measured while melting, all the other
metals are measured while the samples are freezing.

• Kelvin defined as thermodynamic temperature for ‘triple point’ of

water at 273.16 K (0.0100C). Triple point of water is temperature
when solid, liquid and vapor phase is at equilibrium point.
Fixed point Temperature (K)
■ Triple point of hydrogen 13.8033
■ Triple point of neon 24.5561
■ Triple point of oxygen 54.3584
■ Triple Point of argon 83.8058
■ * Triple Point of Water 273.160
■ Freezing point of tin 505.078
■ Freezing point of silver 1234.93
■ Freezing point of copper 1357.77 66
5. Temperature
• There is some difficulty to measure temperature by using Kelvin.
In
1927 an ‘International Practical Temperature Scale’ is introduced and
after several time revised it is given unit called °C (degree Celsius)
with symbol t.
has 2 fixed point that exist at atmosphere pressure:
1. Boiling point of water at 100 °C
2. The triple point is at 0.01 °C

• The conversion
t(°C)= T(K)
between
-T 0 Kelvin scale and Celsius scale given by:
where T0 = 273.15°C
• The main standard thermometer is the ‘Standard Platinum
Resistance Thermometer’
67
 Summary of fundamental quantity
Property unit
Mass Kg
It is equal to the mass of the international prototype of kilogram
Time S
duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
Length m
The length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792450 of
a second
Ampere A
defined as constant current which if maintained in two straight of infinite length of parallel
conductors length, negligible cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum would
produce between these conductors a force equal to 2x10-7 N/m.
Temperature K
Kelvin defined as thermodynamic temperature for ‘triple point’ of water at 273.16 K
68
(0.0100C).
• Introduction
The volt (symbol: V) is the SI derived unit of electric potential
difference.
difference The number of volts is a measure of the strength
of an electrical source in the sense of how much power is
produced for a given current level. It is named in honor of
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who invented the voltaic pile,
the first chemical battery.
This image shows the
structure of a voltaic
pile, which is the first
design of a battery
that's used to make
electricity. It was
discovered by
Alessandro Volta in
1800.
(HowStuffWorks.com,
2007.)
 1) The standard unit for voltage is the volt, as the
potential
difference across a conductor when a current of
one
2) ampere
The quantum Josephson
dissipates junction
one watt effect and
of power.
quantum Hall
effect are utilized to reconstruct the standard
unit of
3) Quantum
voltage. Josephson Junction Effect (Volt
measures how
much kinetic energy each electron carries)
i) The Josephson junction consists of two thin
superconductors
separated by very thin insulator layer
ii) The junction is biased with a DC current.
iii) The junction is exposed to high frequency microwave
 Niobiumsemiconductor

Niobiumsemiconductor
Oxidised Aluminiuminsulator
 Josephson effect

3) Quantum Josephson Junction Effect

iv) A DC voltage is produced across the junction

and directly proportional to frequency.
 Josephson effect

3) Quantum Josephson Junction Effect

v) The voltage at a particular step is given by
n h  f
Vn 
2 e
nf

KJ

where h is the Planck’s constant (6.62608 x 10-34 J/s ), e is the

electron
charge (6.24 x 1018) , f is the frequency and n is the number of
the particular step.
vi) The Josephson’s constant KJ = (2e/h) is equal to
483597.9 GHz /V.
vii) Example: For 100 GHz microwave the single step of
voltage is about
200 μV.
Weston cell
4) Weston cell (Sel Weston) (wet-chemical cell
called battery)
a)The Weston cell was adopted as the
International
Standard (SI) for electromagnetic
b)The
fieldWeston
(EMF) incell is
1911.
i) simplicity ii) stable
iii) low uncertainty iv) low level
noises
c)The output cell is from 1.018540 V to
1.018730 V.
Although the output voltage is varying
with temperature these changes are
well known and can be corrected or
calibrated.
The Weston Cell
• Chemical details
– cathode - amalgam
of cadmium with
mercury
– anode - pure
mercury
– electrolyte - solution
of cadmium
sulphate.
1) The standard unit for resistance is the ohm
2) The resistance standard based Voltageon Quantum Hall
Re sis tan ce 
effect. Current
3) Quantum Hall Effect
a) A superconductor bar carries a DC current.
b) The bar is subjected to a magnetic field
perpendicular to it.
c) A voltage is developed across the bar perpendicular
to the direction of current flow.
d) This effect (in figure) was called the Quantum
Hall Effect.
e) The resistance at a particular step is given by
n h
Rn  2
e
n K Q
where h is the Planck’s constant, e is the electron
charge and n is the number of the particular step.

f) The Von Klitzing constant KQ = (h/e2) is equal to

25812 ± 0.005 
g) The standard for the volt and ohm allow us to realise
the ampere to about 0.2 ppm (parts per million)
• A capacitor is an electronic device that can
store energy in the electric field between a
pair of conductors (called "plates")

• The process of storing energy in the

capacitor is known as "charging", and
involves electric charges of equal magnitude,
but opposite polarity, building up on each plate

• They can also be used to differentiate

Between high-frequency and low-
frequency signals as electronic filters
80
• capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure
of the amount of charge (Q) stored on
each plate for a given potential difference
or voltage (V) which appears between the
plates

• In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of

one farad when one coulomb of charge is stored
due to one volt applied potential difference
across the plates

• Since the farad is a very large unit, values of

capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF),
or 81picofarads (pF)
• When there is a difference in
electric charge between the plates,
an electric field is created in the
region between the plates that is
proportional to the amount of charge
that has been moved from one plate
to the other

•This electric field creates a potential

difference V = E·d between the plates of this simple parallel-plate
capacitor.

82
• An inductor is a passive electrical device
employed in electrical circuits for its property
of inductance
• Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits
and signal Processing
• Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components
form tuned circuits or filter out specific signal frequencies
•Inductance (measured in henries) is an effect
which results from the magnetic field that forms
Around a current-carrying conductor. Electrical
current through the conductor creates a magnetic
flux proportional to the current. A change in this
current creates a change in magnetic flux that, in
turn, generates an electromotive force (emf) that
83 acts to oppose this change in current
• Inductance is a meas. of the generated
•emf for a unit change in current

• an inductor with an inductance of 1H

produces an emf of 1V when the current
through the inductor changes at the rate
of 1A
•The number of turns, the area of each
loop/turn, and what it is wrapped around all
affect the inductance.
• i.e the magnetic flux linking these turns can be increased by using
a high permeability material

84
• inductance is a measure of the amount of magnetic flux produced for
a given electric current

• An inductor is usually constructed as

a coil of conducting material, typically
copper wire, wrapped around a core
either of air or of ferromagnetic material

• Core materials with a higher

permeability than air confine the
magnetic field closely to the inductor,
thereby
85
increasing the inductance
 END

86