MODULE 4.

SEMICODUCTOR PHYSICS
Band theory of solids
In an atom, the electrons in inner shells are tightly
bound to the nucleus while the electrons in the
outermost shell (i.e. the valance electron) are
loosely bound to the nucleus.
During the formation of a solid, a large number of
atoms are brought very close together; the energy
levels of these valence electrons are affected
most.
The energies of inner shell electrons are not
affected much.
In energy band diagram of semiconductors, the
band formed by a series of energy levels
containing the valence electrons is called the
* It is highest occupied energy band.
* It may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons.

 This band is never empty. In this band, electrons are not

capable of gaining energy from external electric field.
 In energy band diagram of semiconductors, the next higher
permitted energy band is called the Conduction Band
(CB). It is an upper band in which the electrons are not
present at 0K.
 It may also be defined as the lowest unfilled permitted
energy band.
 It may be empty or partially filled with electrons at the
room temperature.
 The electrons can move freely in the conduction band and
hence the electrons in conduction band are called
conduction electrons.
 The energy gap between the VB and CB is called the
 This band is formed by a series of non-
permitted energy levels above the top of
valence band and below the bottom of the
conduction band.
 It is denoted by Eg and is the amount of
energy to be supplied to the electron in VB to
get excited into the CB.
When an electron gains sufficient energy, it
is ejected from the valence band. Because of
this, a covalent bond is broken and a
vacancy for electron, called Hole, is
generated.
It is supposed to behave as a positive charge.
This Hole can travel to the adjacent atom by
acquiring an electron from an atom.
When an electron is captured by a Hole, the
covalent bond is again re-established.
Thus conduction electrons are found in and
above freely in the conduction band. The
Holes exist in and move in the valence band.
 Distinction between Insulator, Semiconductor and
Conductor (Metal)
On the basis of the band theory, solids are classified into three
categories;
i) Insulator ii) Semiconductor iii) Conductor
Insulator :-
The band picture if insulator is shown in figure. These are those
materials in which the valence electrons are bound very tightly to their
parent atoms. Hence, very large electric field is needed to remove them
from attraction of nuclei.
Features of Insulator
A full valance band
An empty conduction band
A large band gap Eg = 5 to10 eV
Very high resistivity of order of 109 Ω cm
Some samples at high temperature and under sufficient electric field,
some electrons may move from valance band to conduction band.
Hence, insulator may show small conductivity at high temperature.
e.g. diamond and glass
Semiconductors
The band diagram of semiconductor is shown in figure. A
semiconducting material has electrical properties between those of
insulators and good conductors.
Features of Semiconductors
Almost empty conduction band and filled valance band with a
very narrow energy gap Eg = 1 eV
At 0K, the valance band is completely filled and the conduction
band is empty.
As temperature increases the electron in valance band acquire
enough energy to cross the small energy gap and move to CB.
Thus the conductivity of semiconductors increases with
temperature.
The electron moving to CB leave behind positive holes in VB.
Hence, semiconductor current is the sum of electron and hole
current flowing in opposite direction.
The resistivity varies from to 10-12 to 109 Ω cm
e.g. Ge (Germanium) = Eg = 0.7 eV and Si (Silicon) = Eg = 1.1 eV
Conductors
The conductors have a large number of free
electrons available for electrical conduction.
Conductors may be defined as solids characterized
by a single energy band called conduction band,
which is partially filled at any temperature.
Alternatively, a conductor as a solid, in which the
conduction and valance bands overlap and there is
no energy gap between the two bands
As there is no forbidden gap, there is no structure to
establish holes.
The total current is simply due to the flow of
electrons.
e.g. Lithium, Beryllium, Sodium
 TYPE OF SEMICONDUCTORS
The semiconductors are of two types:
(i) Pure or Intrinsic Semiconductor
(ii) Doped or extrinsic semiconductor

Pure or Intrinsic Semiconductors

Semiconductor like Ge and Si has crystalline
structure. Their atoms are arranged in an
ordered array known as the crystal lattice.
These materials are tetravalent in nature; with
four valence electrons in the outermost shell.
The neighbouring atoms form covalent bonds by sharing
four electrons with each other so as achieved stable
structure. A two dimensional structure of Ge crystal lattice
is shown in figure.
In which the circles represent atom cores consisting of the
nuclei and inner electrons. Each pair of lines represents a
covalent bond. The dots represent the valence electrons.
The intrinsic semiconductor is the material in its very pure
form.
The band diagram of pure semiconductor is shown in
Figure.
At temperature 0K all the electrons are paired and are
contained in the completely filled valence band.
No electron is free for conduction band. Hence the
conduction band is completely empty.
The energy gap between the two bands is small
Eg= 0.72 eV for Ge
At 0K the energies of this magnitude are usually not acquired
by the applied field. Hence, the valence band remains full, the
conduction band empty and the material behaves as insulator.
At room temperature, nearly 300K, some of the valence
electrons acquire thermal energy greater than Eg and hence
they can jump to the higher conduction band.
They now act as free electrons and can move under the
influence of small applied field.
The absence of electron in the valence band is the Hole.
Under the influence of electric field, an electron form the
neighboring covalent bond may fill this vacancy i.e. hole
moves in a direction opposite to electron motion in valence
band.
The Hole moves in the same direction as would a
positive charge carrier. Hence, in semiconductors
there are two types of charge carrier. The total
current is the sum of the electrons and hole current.
In the intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes
are generated in pair.
At any given temperature, the number of electrons
in conduction band and number of holes in valance
band are same.
With the rise in temperature, more and more
electron hole pairs are formed and more charge
carriers are available for conduction. Hence, the
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors increases
with the rise in temperature.
The intrinsic semiconductors have low
Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductors
 Most of the engineering applications of semiconductors
involves doped semiconductors with specify impurities
rather than the intrinsic material.
 Doping is the process of adding a controlled quantity of
impurity to intrinsic semiconductors, so as to increase
its conductivity. A semiconductor doped with impurity
atoms is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
 The impurity is added to the melt of Ge or Si , then the
crystal is grown in which the impurities are
incorporated.
 The impurity atoms occupy lattice positions which were
occupied by germanium atoms in pure metal.
 Two types of extrinsic semiconductors are produced
depending upon the group impurity atom.
N -Type of semiconductor

Consider a crystal of Ge in which a small fraction of Ge

atoms is replaced by Sb (Antimony) atoms.
The Sb atom is pentavalent and it occupies normal Ge lattice
site.
It forms four covalent bonds with four neighboring Ge
atoms.
The fifth electron, not used in bonding, is loosely bound.
With supply of little energy, it can be made free leaving
behind a positively charged immobile ion.
Thus the impurity atoms donate free electrons to the crystal
thereby increasing the conductivity of material. Hence they
are called the donor impurities.
The conductivity is due to the negatively charged electrons.
Hence, the material is called N-Type semiconductor.
The electron and hole pairs are generated in Ge due to
thermal energy.
For N-Type of semiconductor, the concentration of free
electron is far greater than concentration of holes. The
addition of donor impurity generates new energy levels in the
band picture. The donor energy levels of neutral donor atoms
lie very close to the lower edge of conduction band.
With the supply of a little energy the neutral donor atom loses
the fifth electron for conduction and it gets positively
P-Type of semiconductors

If the intrinsic semiconducting material, say Germanium,

is doped by atoms of trivalent element like Boron, then
the impurity atoms occupy places in the lattice which
were previously occupied by Ge in pure crystal.
 Boron, is being trivalent, is one electron short of being able to
complete the stable structure. The absence of electron in one of these
bond is hole. With a small amount of energy, it can accept an electron
from the neighboring germanium atom and the vacancy shifts there.
 The impurity atoms thus supply holes which are ready to accept
electrons. Hence the impurity is known as acceptor impurity. The hole
concentration is much more than electron concentration (thermally
generated). The conductivity is due to the positively charged holes.
Hence the semiconductor is called P-Type of semiconductor.
 The addition of impurity introduces additional acceptor energy level,
in the band diagram, slightly above the top of the conduction band.
 With the supply of little energy, these vacancies can be occupied by
electrons in valence band and thus increases the hole in valence band.
 It should be remembered that even though the conduction in P-Type
and N-Type materials is due to holes and electrons respectively. It
does not mean that P-Type material has a positive charge and N-Type
material has a negative charge.
 The extrinsic semiconductors are electrically neutral at any given
temperature.