Chapter 02

Chapter 3
Control of the Internal
Environment

Bioenergetics
Introduction to metabolism and bioenergetics

Metabolism
• Sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body-two
general categories of chemical reactions
• Anabolic reactions
• Synthesis of molecules

• Catabolic reactions
• Breakdown of molecules
Bioenergetics
• Process of converting foodstuffs (fats, proteins,
carbohydrates) into usable energy for cell work
Cell structure

Cell membrane (sarcolemma in skeletal muscle)

• Semipermeable membrane that separates the cell from
the extracellular environment
Nucleus
• Contains genes that regulate protein synthesis
• Molecular biology
Cytoplasm (sarcoplasm in muscle)
• Fluid portion of cell
• Contains organelles
• Mitochondria
Skeletal muscle fiber contains two populations of
mitochondria

Fig 3.1 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Molecular biology and exercise physiology

Study of molecular structures and events underlying

biological processes
• Relationship between genes and cellular characteristics they
control
Genes code for specific cellular proteins
• Process of protein synthesis
Exercise training results in modifications in protein synthesis
• Strength training results in increased synthesis of muscle
contractile protein
Molecular biology provides “tools” for understanding the
cellular response to exercise
Exercise physiology is linked with several fields of study

Fig 3.2
Cellular chemical reactions

Endergonic reactions

• Require energy to be added to the reactants

Exergonic reactions

• Release energy

Coupled reactions

• Liberation of energy in an exergonic reaction drives an

endergonic reaction
Breakdown of glucose into C O2 and H2O

Fig 3.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Coupled reactions

Fig 3.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Oxidation-reduction reactions

Oxidation
• Removing an electron

Reduction
• Addition of an electron

Oxidation and reduction are always coupled reactions

• A molecule that loses electron is oxidized

• A molecule that gains an electron is reduced

Roles of N A D and F A D in electron transport

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (N A D)

• Oxidized form: NAD+
• Reduced form: N A D H
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (F A D)
• Oxidized form: F A D
• Reduced form: FADH2
Both N A D and F A D play an important role in transfer
of electrons
• Carrier molecules during bioenergetic reactions
Important electron carriers

Fig 3.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Enzymes

Enzymes are cellular proteins that act as catalysts to

increase the speed of reactions
• Lower the energy of activation
Factors that regulate enzyme activity
• Temperature
• pH
Interact with specific substrates
• Lock and key model
Enzymes reduce the energy of activation

Fig 3.6 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Amino Acids/Proteins
Amino Acids/Proteins
Amino Acids/Proteins

• 2 to 10 AAs: Peptides
(dipeptides, tripeptides,etc)

• 11 to 100 AAs: Polypeptides

• >100 AAs: Proteins

Enzyme-catalyzed reaction

Source: Lewis, Ricki, Shier, David N., and Butler, Jackie L. Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology. McGraw Hill, 2015.

Fig 3.7 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Classification of enzymes

Almost all enzyme names end in –ase

Kinases
• Add a phosphate group
Dehydrogenases
• Remove hydrogen atoms
Oxidases
• Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions involving oxygen
Isomerases
• Rearrangement of the structure of molecules
Diagnostic value of measuring enzyme levels in the
blood-examples
In healthy people, cellular enzymes are not found in the
blood. However, in diseases that damage cells, these
cells release enzymes into the blood
• Enzyme levels in blood serve as “biomarkers” of disease and/or tissue
damage

TABLE 3.1 Examples of the Diagnostic Value of Enzymes Found in Blood

Enzyme Diseases Associated with High
Blood Levels of Enzyme
Lactate dehydrogenase (cardiac- Myocardial infarction
specific isoform)
Creatine kinase Myocardial infarction, muscular
dystrophy
Alkaline phosphatase Carcinoma of bone, Paget’s disease,
obstructive jaundice
Amylase Pancreatitis, perforated peptic ulcer
Aldolase Muscular dystrophy
Factors that influence enzyme activity

Temperature
• A small rise in body temperature increases enzyme activity
• Exercise results in increased body temperature
• Large increase in body temperature (>41°C) can denature
enzymes and decrease activity
pH
• Changes in pH (increase or decrease) can decrease
enzyme activity
• High intensity exercise decreases muscle pH
Impact of body temperature on enzyme activity

Fig 3.8 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Impact of pH on enzyme activity

Fig 3.9 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Fuels for exercise - Carbohydrates

Glucose
• Blood sugar
Glycogen
• Glycogen is a polysaccharide composed of glucose
molecules linked together
• Glycogen is stored for fuel in both the liver and skeletal
muscles
• Synthesized by enzyme glycogen synthase
Glycogenolysis
• Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Glycogen Molecule
Fuels for exercise - Fats

Fatty acids
• Primary type of fat used by skeletal muscle
Triglycerides
• Storage form of fat in muscle and adipose tissue
• Broken down into glycerol and fatty acids via lipolysis
Phospholipids
• Not used as an energy source
Steroids
• Derived from cholesterol-not an energy source
• Needed to synthesize sex hormones
Fuels for exercise - Protein

Proteins are composed of amino acids (A A)

AA can be used as fuel in several ways
Some A A can be converted to glucose in the liver
• Gluconeogenesis
Other AA can be converted to metabolic intermediates
(For example, T C A cycle)
• Contribute as a fuel in muscle
Nonetheless, overall, protein is not a primary energy
source during exercise
High energy phosphates

Adenosine triphosphate (A T P)
• Consists of adenine, ribose, and three linked phosphates
Synthesis
ADP + Pi ATP

Breakdown
Structure of ATP

Fig 3.10 Access the text alternative for slide images.

ATP is the universal energy source for cells

Fig 3.11 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Bioenergetics

Formation of A T P
• Phosphocreatine (P C) breakdown
• Degradation of glucose and glycogen
• Glycolysis
• Oxidative formation of A T P
Anaerobic pathways
• Do not involve O2
• P C breakdown and glycolysis
Aerobic pathways
• Require O2
• Oxidative phosphorylation
Anaerobic ATP production

A T P-P C system
• Immediate source of A T P

• Creatine as a supplement!

Glycolysis
• Glucose → 2 pyruvic acid or 2 lactic acid
• Energy investment phase
• Requires 2 A T P

• Energy generation phase

• Produces 4 A T P, 2 N A D H, and 2 pyruvate or 2 lactate
Glycolysis occurs in two phases

Source: Mathews, Christopher K. and Holde, Kensal Edward Van. Biochemistry. Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co., 1990.

Fig 3.13 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Interaction between glucose and glycogen as fuel
source

Fig 3.14 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Steps involved in glycolysis

Fig 3.15 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Electron carrier molecules

Transport hydrogens and associated electrons

• To mitochondria for A T P generation (aerobic)
• To convert pyruvic acid to lactic acid (anaerobic)

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (N A D)

NAD+ + 2H  NADH

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (F A D)

FAD + 2H  FADH2
Formation of lactate from pyruvate

Fig 3.16 Access the text alternative for slide images.

N A D H is “Shuttled” into mitochondria

N A D H produced in glycolysis must be converted back

to N A D
• By converting pyruvic acid to lactic acid
• By “shuttling” H+ into the mitochondria
+
A specific transport system shuttles H across the
mitochondrial membrane
• Located in the mitochondrial membrane
Aerobic A T P production

Aerobic A T P results from cooperation between the

citric acid cycle and election transport chain
(mitochondria)

Citric acid cycle

• Completes oxidation of fuels (For example, fats, C H O,

proteins) to provide electrons for electron transport chain

Electron transport chain

• Energy obtain from electron transport is used to produce

A T P at the end of the electron transport chain
Steps leading to oxidative phosphorylation

Fig 3.17 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Citric acid cycle-details

Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)

• Pyruvic acid (3 C) is converted to acetyl-C oA (2 C)

• C O2 is formed

Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4 C) to form citrate (6 C)

Citrate is metabolized to oxaloacetate

• Two C O2 molecules given off

FADH2
Produces three molecules of N A D H and one
One molecule of G T P is also formed
• G T P translates into one A T P
Citric acid cycle

Fig 3.18 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Fats and proteins in aerobic metabolism

Fats
• Triglycerides → glycerol and fatty acids
• Fatty acids → acetyl-C oA (process called Beta-oxidation)
• Glycerol is not an important muscle fuel during exercise
Protein
• Broken down into amino acids
• Converted to glucose, pyruvic acid, acetyl-C oA, and
Krebs cycle intermediates
Beta oxidation occurs within mitochondria

Fig 3.20 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Relationship between the metabolism of fats, C H O, and
proteins

Fig 3.19 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Aerobic A T P production

Electron transport chain

• Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria
• Electrons removed from N A D H and F A D H are passed
along a series of carriers (cytochromes) to produce A T P
• 1 N A D H produces 2.5 A T P
• 1 F A D H produces 1.5 A T P

• Chemiosmotic hypothesis whereby H+ from N A D H

and F A D H is combined with O2 to form water and
form A T P
Chemiosmotic hypothesis of ATP formation

Electron transport chain results in pumping of H+ ions

across inner mitochondrial membrane
• Results in electrochemical (that is H+ ) gradient across
membrane

Energy released to form A T P H+ ions diffuse back

as
across the membrane
Electron transport chain

Fig 3.21 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Muscle contractions increase the production of free
radicals

Free radicals (radicals) are molecules with an unpaired

electron in outer orbital
• Free radicals can be produced by the leakage of electrons
along the electron transport chain
• Free radicals can also be produced in other locations within the
cell
• Free radicals react with other molecules in the cell
• Damages the molecule combining with the radical
Exercise promotes the production of free radicals in the
working muscles
• Exercise-induced free radical production is not due to mitochondrial
production but is primarily due to radicals from other sources
Aerobic A T P production from one glucose molecule

TABLE 3.2 Aerobic A T P Tally from the Breakdown of One Molecule of

Glucose
Metabolic Process High-Energy Products ATP from Oxidative ATP Subtotal
Phosphorylation
Glycolysis 2ATP — 2 (total if anaerobic)

2 N A D H* 5 7 (if aerobic)

Pyruvate to acetyl-C oA 2NADH 5 12

Citric acid cycle

2GTP — 14

6 NADH 15 29

2 F A D H† 3 32

Grand total: 32 ATP

*2.5 ATP per N A D H.

†
1.5 ATP per F A D H.
Efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation

One mole of A T P has energy yield of 7.3 kcal

32 moles of A T P are formed from one mole of glucose
Potential energy released from one mole of glucose is
686 kcal/mole
32 moles ATP / mole glucose ´ 7.3 kcal / mole ATP
´ 100 = 34%
686 kcal / mole glucose

Overall efficiency of aerobic respiration is 34%

66% of energy released as heat
Regulation of bioenergetics

Rate-limiting enzymes
• An enzyme that regulates the rate of a metabolic pathway
Modulators of rate-limiting enzymes
• Levels of A T P andADP + Pi
• High levels of A T P inhibit ATP production
• Low levels of A T P and high levels ofADP + Pi stimulate A T P
production

• Calcium stimulates aerobic A T P production

Rate-limiting enzymes within metabolic pathways

TABLE 3.3 Factors Known to Affect the Activity of Rate-Limiting Enzymes of

Metabolic Pathways Involved in Bioenergetics
Pathway Rate-Limiting Stimulators Inhibitors
Enzyme
ATP-PC system Creatine kinase ADP ATP
Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase A M P, ADP, P i, ATP, CP, citrate,
pH↑ pH↓
Citric acid cycle Isocitrate ATP, N A D H
++ +
dehydrogenase ADP, Ca , NAD
Electron Cytochrome oxidase ADP, P i ATP
transport chain
Rate limiting enzymes

Fig 3.22 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Hydraulic model of oxidative phosphorylation-rest

Fig 3.23 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Hydraulic model of oxidative phosphorylation-moderate
exercise

Fig 3.23 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Interaction between aerobic/anaerobic ATP production

Energy to perform exercise comes from an interaction

between aerobic and anaerobic pathways

Depends on duration and intensity of exercise

• Short-term, high-intensity activities
• Greater contribution of anaerobic energy systems

• Long-term, low to moderate-intensity exercise

• Majority of A T P produced from aerobic sources
Contribution of anaerobically and aerobically produced
ATP

Fig 3.24 Access the text alternative for slide images.